irony - Etymology, Socratic irony, Roman irony, Verbal irony, Use of irony, Fiction

One of the most complex forms of literary expression, more a habit of mind than a rhetorical figure, requiring continual alertness on the part of the reader for proper interpretation. Irony is not simply saying one thing and implying the opposite; the name for this crude form is sarcasm. Irony invites the reader to consider several shades of meaning simultaneously, some of which are elided or cancelled out in the process. The meaning of irony lies precisely in the tension between single statement and multiple meaning. It was suggested by Kierkegaard that the finest irony is undecipherable as such - which comes close to the position of the Romantic ironist, who writes with a keen sense of the double-sidedness of truth and the irreducible ambiguity of language itself. This conception is also referred to as cosmic or philosophical irony.

For the song by Alanis Morissette, see Ironic (song).

Irony is a literary or rhetorical device in which there is a gap or incongruity between what a speaker or a writer says, and what is generally understood (either at the time, or in the later context of history). Irony may also arise from a discordance between acts and results, especially if it is striking, and known to a later audience. A certain kind of irony may result from the act of pursuing a desired outcome, resulting in the opposite effect, but again, only if this is known to a third party.

More generally, irony is understood as an aesthetic valuation by an audience, which relies on a sharp discordance between the real and the ideal, and which is variously applied to texts, speech, events, acts, and even fashion. All the different senses of irony revolve around the perceived notion of an incongruity, or a gap, between an understanding of reality, or expectation of a reality, and what actually happens.

There are different kinds of irony. Fowler, in Modern English Usage, had this to say of irony:

Irony has some of its foundation in the onlooker’s perception of paradox. The reader’s perception of a disconnection between common expectation, and the application of logic with an unexpected outcome, both has an element of irony in it and shows the connection between irony and humor, when the surprise startles us into laughter. Not all irony is humorous: “grim irony” and “stark irony” are familiar.

Etymology

The Greek etymology of the word irony, εἰρωνεία (eironeia), means feigned ignorance (a technique often used by the Greek philosopher Socrates, see further), from είρων (eiron), the one who makes a question pretending to be naïve (a rhetorical question), and είρειν is also a verb radical of the Greek “to speak.” The verb είρειν (eirein) itself is probably from the Proto-Indo-European root *wer- say.

Socratic irony

Socratic irony is feigning ignorance in order to expose the weakness of another’s position.

The Greek word eironeia—ειρωνεία applied particularly to understatement in the nature of dissimulation. Such irony occurred especially and notably in the assumed ignorance which Socrates adopted as a method of dialectic, the “Socratic irony.” Socratic irony involves a profession of ignorance that disguises a skeptical, non-committed attitude towards some dogma or universal opinion that lacks a basis in reason or in logic. The irony entertains those onlookers who know that Socrates is wiser than he permits himself to appear and who may perceive slightly in advance the direction the “naïve” questioning will take.

Television journalist Louis Theroux demonstrated expert use of Socratic irony to his audience, by interviewing a number of diverse individuals with an air of relaxed naïveté and appreciative curiosity.

In his character of Ali G, Sacha Baron Cohen uses Socratic irony to satirical effect.

The 19th century Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard admired Socratic irony and used a variation of Socratic irony in many of his works. Kierkegaard wrote on Socratic irony in his master’s thesis, titled On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates. In the thesis, Kierkegaard praises Plato’s and Aristophanes’ use of Socratic irony, and argues that Aristophanes’ portrayal of Socrates in The Clouds most accurately captured the spirit of Socratic irony.

Roman irony

In Roman times, irony was used in public speaking and rhetoric, in which the words used were opposite their meaning or intent.

Shakespeare imitated Roman irony in his play Julius Caesar in Mark Antony’s speech: "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears! The subsequent monologue uses extensive irony to glorify Caesar;

Verbal irony

Verbal irony is traditionally defined as the use of words to convey something other than, and especially the opposite of, the literal meaning of the words. However, there are examples of verbal irony that do not rely on saying the opposite of what one means, and there are cases where all the traditional criteria of irony exist and the utterance is not ironic.

Verbal irony is distinguished from related phenomena such as situational irony and dramatic irony in that it is produced intentionally by speakers. For instance, if a speaker exclaims, “I’m not upset!” but reveals an upset emotional state through his voice while truly trying to claim he is not upset, it would not be verbal irony just by virtue of its verbal manifestation (it would, however, be situational irony). But if the same speaker said the same words and intended to communicate that he was upset by claiming that he was not, the utterance would be verbal irony. This distinction gets at an important aspect of verbal irony: speakers communicate implied propositions that are intentionally contradictory to the propositions contained in the words themselves.

A fair amount of confusion has surrounded the issue regarding the relationship between verbal irony and sarcasm, and psychology researchers have addressed the issue directly (e.g, Lee & For example, ridicule is an important aspect of sarcasm, but not verbal irony in general. By this account, sarcasm is a particular kind of personal criticism leveled against a person or group of persons that incorporates verbal irony. The friend could have also replied with any number of ironic expressions that should not be labeled as sarcasm exactly, but still have many shared elements with sarcasm (see examples below).

Research shows that most instances of verbal irony are considered to be sarcastic, suggesting that the term sarcasm is more widely used than its technical definition suggests it should be (Bryant & I hear they do fine work), hyperbole (That's best idea I have heard in years), understatement (Sure, it's only cancer), rhetorical questions (Does your soul have cancer?), and jocularity (Get them to fix your bad back while you're at it) should all be considered kinds of verbal irony (Gibbs, 2000).

Use of irony

The word “irony” is frequently used figuratively, especially in such phrases as “the irony of fate,” of an issue or result that seems to contradict normal expectations derived from the previous state or condition.

Situational irony

Players and events coming together in improbable situations creating a tension between expected and real results. Situational irony occurs when the results of a situation are far different from what was expected.

Examples:

A shipboard scene of reconciliation and hope for an estranged couple ends with the camera pulling back to reveal a life preserver stenciled “RMS Titanic.” A situation immortalized in O.

Irony of fate (cosmic irony)

The expression “irony of fate” stems from the notion that the gods (or the Fates) are amusing themselves by toying with the minds of mortals, with deliberate ironic intent. Closely connected with cosmic irony, it arises from sharp contrasts between reality and human ideals, or between human intentions and actual results.

For example:

The artist Monet's loss of vision, but not hearing.

Historical irony (cosmic irony through time)

When history is seen through modern eyes, it sometimes happens that there is an especially sharp contrast between the way historical figures see their world and the probable future of their world, and what actually transpired. When the World War which began the 20th century was called The War to End All Wars, this later became an example of historical irony. Historical irony is therefore a subset of cosmic irony, but one in which the element of time is bound up.

Historical irony is often encapsulated into statement:

"They couldn't hit an elephant at this distance."

Fiction

A typical use of irony of fate occurs in the climax of Disney’s The Hunchback of Notre Dame. The irony is that Frollo’s line is used in reference to Esmeralda, but instead it winds up applying to Frollo himself as he plunges into the fiery pit of molten lead.

Spoilers end here.

Situations resembling poetic justice, but lacking the aspect of justice, may also be ascribed to the irony of fate.

Tragic irony (dramatic irony)

In tragedy, what is called "tragic irony" becomes a device for heightening the intensity of a dramatic situation. Tragic irony particularly characterized the drama of ancient Greece, owing to the familiarity of the spectators with the legends on which so many of the plays were based. In this form of irony, the words and actions of the characters belie the real situation, which the spectators fully realize. It may take several forms: the character speaking may realize the irony of his words while the rest of the characters may not; or the spectators may alone realize the irony. Sophocles’ Oedipus the King provides a classic example of tragic irony at its fullest and finest.

Irony may come to expression in inappropriate behavior. A witness to a scene involving threats of violence, for example, may perceive continued politeness on the part of the victim as increasingly ironic as it becomes increasingly inappropriate.

When not recognized, irony can lead to misunderstanding. Even if an ironic statement is recognized as such, it often expresses less clearly what the speaker or writer wants to say than would a direct statement.

Another famous case of tragic irony occurs in the William Shakespeare play, Romeo and Juliet when Romeo finds Juliet in a drugged death-like sleep, he assumes her to be dead and kills himself.

Comic irony

Layers of comic irony pervade (as an example) Jane Austen’s novels. The irony deepens as the story promotes his romance and ends in a double wedding.

Comic irony from television sketch-comedy has the distinction over literary comic irony in that it often incorporates elements of absurdity. For instance, an ironic situation might involve getting hit by a rib-delivery truck after trying to poison someone with bad rib-sauce in order to steal his or her gems. Reference: Season 4 Cycle 1—SCTV Network / 90 Show 2, Polynesiantown.

Comic irony has long been a staple of cartoons, in which the action is free to be unrealistic. It usually involves irony and is self-reflective. Daniel Handler’s A Series of Unfortunate Events could also be considered a form of romantic irony, in which the action is frequently halted for a warning that the events to follow could be potentially distressing.

Irony as infinite, absolute negativity

While many reputable critics limit irony to something resembling Aristotle's definition, an influential set of texts insists that it be understood, not as a limited tool, but as a disruptive force with the power to undo texts and readers alike. This tradition includes not only Søren Kierkegaard, but 19th-century German critic and novelist Friedrich Schlegel ("On Incomprehensibility"), Charles Baudelaire, Stendhal, and the 20th-century deconstructionist Paul de Man ("The Concept of Irony"). Briefly, it insists that irony is, in Kierkegaard's words, "infinite, absolute negativity". Where much of philosophy attempts to reconcile opposites into a larger positive project, Kierkegaard and others insist that irony — whether expressed in complex games of authorship or simple litotes — must, in Kierkegaard's words, "swallow its own stomach". Irony entails endless reflection and violent reversals, and ensures incomprehensibility at the moment it compels speech. Not surprisingly, irony is the favorite textual property of deconstructionists. Holocaust writer Tadeusz Borowski's brief and fiendishly complex short story "The Death of Schillinger" shows how irony infects not just Holocaust literature, but the acts and lives of victims, perpetrators, and bystanders alike. Any definition of irony quickly becomes mired in philosophy's bitterest debates.

Usage controversy

The material above deals with the primary dictionary meaning of the word irony.

Descriptivists generally discount such self-proclaimed language authorities in favor of studying how individuals currently use the word.

It is currently quite common to hear the word ironic used as a synonym for incongruous or coincidental in situations where there is no “double audience,” and no contradiction between the ostensible and true meaning of the words.

The American Heritage Dictionary’s usage panel found it unacceptable to use the word ironic to describe mere unfortunate coincidences or surprising disappointments that “suggest no particular lessons about human vanity or folly.” This definition still allows the above usage but excludes examples like “It's a traffic jam when you're already late” as made popular by Alanis Morissette’s “Ironic”.

The American Heritage Dictionary recognizes a secondary meaning for irony: “incongruity between what might be expected and what actually occurs.” This sense, however, is not synonymous with "incongruous" but merely a definition of dramatic or situational irony.

Other historical prescriptivists have even stricter definitions for the word irony.

Recent developments

Alanis Morissette’s popular 1995 song “Ironic” breathed new life into the ongoing controversy over the definition of irony. Morissette’s alleged misuses of the word include the following:

Among those who assert that the song uses an invalid definition of irony, many find it ironic that Morissette would write a song titled “Ironic” with no actual irony in it. In 2004, Morissette herself acknowledged that the song doesn’t live up to the definition, which is what makes it ironic. Some have referred to the deprecated sense of "irony" as Morissettian irony.

This sort of meta-irony was almost certainly the goal of the writers of Saturday Night Live in their “Tales of Irony” sketch, in which guest host Jason Alexander presided over a Masterpiece Theatre–like presentation of short films which, to his increasing dismay, lacked ironic content. Irony played the role of the punchline in many Bill Brasky skits of Saturday Night Live, famously the interchange “He hated Mexicans!” / “And he was half Mexican!” / “And he hated irony!”

Sarcasm and irony are often mistaken for one another. Teen: Dude, stop being so ironic! George: Actually, I was being sarcastic, ironic is that you didn't know the difference! Dave Eggers’ novel, A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius contains a lengthy discourse criticizing what the author regards as the misuse of the word irony.

A PhD Comics strip takes up the issue of the disconnect between the popular view of the definition of ironic and the view supported by many academics.

It may be that popular usage patterns are shifting the predominant meaning of irony toward references to ironies of fate. This though adds to the Eurocentric view that North Americans do not understand Irony.

Cultural variation

Irony often requires a cultural backdrop to be understood or noticed, and as with any culture-specific idiom, irony often cannot be perfectly transplanted. Attempting a literal translation of an ironic idiom to another language often renders the concept muddled or incoherent. Further, the use of verbal irony may also rely on non-literal cues such as tone of voice or posture. "Irony and Satire: A Bibliography." Irony and Satire in French Literature. "Irony, Inference, and Critical Understanding."