Roman politician of the late Republic, whose bitter feud with Marius, begun in Africa in 107 BC during the Jugurthine War, twice plunged Rome into civil war in the 80s BC. In 88 BC he chose to lead his army against the state rather than surrender to Marius his command of the war against Mithridates, and on returning to Rome (83 BC) used his forces to defeat the Marians and secure his own (illegal) position. Appointed Dictator in 82 BC, he set about reforming the state, and enacted a number of measures to boost the authority of the Senate. These did not long survive his sudden retirement in 79 BC, but his reform of criminal jurisdiction lasted into the empire.
| Lucius Cornelius Sulla "Felix" | |
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| Dictator of Rome | |
|---|---|
| In office | |
| 82 BC – 80 BC | |
| Preceded by | Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus in 203 BC |
| Succeeded by | Gaius Julius Caesar in 49 BC |
| Born |
138 BC Rome |
| Died |
78 BC Puteoli |
| Consul of the Roman Republic | |
| In office | |
| 88 BC – 88 BC | |
| Preceded by | Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo and Lucius Porcius Cato |
| Succeeded by | Lucius Cornelius Cinna and Gnaeus Octavius |
| Consul of the Roman Republic | |
| In office | |
| 80 BC – 80 BC | |
| Preceded by | Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella and Marcus Tullius Decula |
| Succeeded by | Appius Claudius Pulcher and Publius Servilius Vatia |
Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (Latin: L·CORNELIVS·L·F·P·N·SVLLA·FELIX) (c. 138 BC–78 BC) Roman general and dictator, was usually known simply as Sulla. Machiavelli later alluded to this description of Sulla in his work "The Prince."
Life
Early years
Sulla was born into a branch of the Cornelii gens, of impeccable Patrician background, but his family, by the time of his birth, had fallen to an impoverished condition. Lacking ready money, Sulla spent his youth amongst Rome’s low-lifes – comics, actors, lute-players, dancers, female prostitutes. It was at this time he met the up-and-coming Roman actor Metrobius – a "female impersonator", as Plutarch describes him, to whom Sulla remained strongly attached throughout his life: even when both were quite old, Sulla never attempted to conceal this sentimental attachment.
Despite his early waywardness, it seems certain that Sulla received a good education: he was fluent in Greek, a sure sign in Rome of an "educated man". The means by which Sulla attained the fortune which later would enable him to ascend the difficult ladder of Roman politics (or the Cursus honorum as it was known) are not clear, although Plutarch refers to two inheritances: one, conventionally, from his step-mother; the other, somewhat scandalously, from a low-born but rich unmarried lady
Africa and the capture of Jugurtha
In 107 BC, Sulla was nominated quaestor to Gaius Marius, the renowned Roman general, who had been elected consul for that year. Under the command of Marius, the Roman forces followed a very similar plan to Metellus' and ultimately defeated the Numidians in 106 BC, thanks in large part to Sulla's initiative in capturing the Numidian king. It was a fraught operation from the first, with the wily King Bocchus weighing up the advantages of handing Jurgurtha over to Sulla or Sulla over to Jurgurtha. The publicity attracted by this feat boosted Sulla's political career. Much to the annoyance of Marius, a gilded equestrian statue of Sulla donated by King Bocchus was erected in the Forum to commemorate his accomplishment. Sulla had by this time transferred to the army of Quintus Lutatius Catulus Caesar. Sulla is generally credited as being the prime mover in the defeat of the tribes (Catulus being a hopeless general and quite incapable of cooperating with Marius).
Praetorship and Cilician governorship
Returning to Rome, Sulla was elected 'Praetor urbanus' in 97 BC. While in the East, Sulla was the first Roman magistrate to meet a Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, and by taking the seat between the Parthian ambassador and the ambassador from Pontus (the center seat being the place of honour), he sealed, perhaps unintentionally, the Parthian ambassador's fate. Orobazus was executed upon his return to Parthia for allowing Sulla to outmaneuver him. This prophecy was to have a powerful hold on Sulla throughout his life. In 92 BC Sulla repulsed Tigranes the Great of Armenia from Cappadocia. Later in 92 BC Sulla left the East and returned to Rome, where he aligned himself with the Optimates in opposition to Gaius Marius.
Social War
The Social War (91–87 BC) was fought against the Socii, Roman allies in Italy, and was the result of Rome's intransigence in regarding the civil liberties of its own citizens (Romans) as superior to those of the citizens of the rest of Italy.
At the beginning of the Social War, the Roman aristocracy and Senate were beginning to fear Marius' ambition, which had already given him 5 consulships in a row from 104 BC to 100 BC. In this last rebellion of the Italian allies, Sulla served with brilliance as a general. For example, in 89 BC Sulla captured Aeclanum, the chief town of Hirpini, by setting the wooden breastwork on fire.
Grass Crown
Sulla served not only with brilliance as a general during the Social War, but also with immense personal bravery.
Consul and first march on Rome
As the consul of Rome, Sulla prepared to depart once more for the East, to fight the first Mithridatic War, by the appointment of the Senate. Marius convinced the tribune Publius Sulpicius Rufus to call an assembly and revert the Senate's decision on Sulla's command. As violence in the Forum ensued and the efforts of the nobles to effect a public lynching similar to what had happened to the brothers Gracchi and Saturninus were smashed by the gladitatorial bodyguard of Sulpicius, Sulla went to the house of Marius and made a personal plea to stop the violence which was ignored. Sulla's own son-in-law was killed in those riots.
Sulla fled Rome and went to the camp of his victorious Social War veterans, in the South of Italy, ready to cross over to Greece. Sulla then took six of his most loyal legions and prepared to march on Rome. Sulla justified his actions on the grounds that the senate had been neutered and the mos maiorum ("The way things were done" which as a reference amounted to a Roman constitution though none of it was codified as such) had been offended by the negation of the rights of the consuls of the year to fight the wars of that year.
Sulla consolidated his position, ordered death for Marius and a few of his allies and addressed the Senate in harsh tones, portraying himself as a victim, presumably to justify his violent entrance into the city. After restructuring the city's politics and with the Senate's power strengthened, Sulla returned to his camp and proceeded with the original plan of fighting Mithridates in Pontus. With Sulla out of Rome, Marius plotted his return. By the end of 87 BC Marius returned to Rome with the support of Lucius Cornelius Cinna and, in Sulla's absence, took control of the city. Marius declared Sulla's reforms and laws invalid and officially exiled Sulla. Then, through the proscriptions, Marius ordered the slaughter of many supporters of Sulla and others whom he considered had slighted him. Some one hundred supporters of Sulla were killed during this time. Cinna was now in sole control of Rome
First Mithridatic War and the siege of Athens
In the spring of 87 BC Sulla landed at Dyrrachium, Greece. Sulla moved southeast, picking up supplies and reinforcements as he went. After speaking with Lucullus, Sura handed over the command of his troops to Sulla. At Chaeronea, ambassadors from all the major cities of Greece with the exception of Athens, met with Sulla, who impressed on them the determination of Rome to drive Mithridates from Greece and Asia Province. Sulla then advanced on Athens.
On arrival, Sulla threw up a siege encompassing not only Athens but also the port of Piraeus. At the time Archelaus had command of the sea, so Sulla sent Lucullus to raise a fleet from the remaining Roman allies in the eastern Meditarranean. Sulla needed wood, so he cut down everything including the sacred groves of Greece, up to 100 miles from Athens. Sulla however patiently bided his time, despite the insults hurled from the walls of Athens by Aristion and his followers, alluding to Sulla’s complexion (aggravated by the sun and heat) to the effect that his face looked like mulberry sprinkled with flour. A delegation from Athens was sent to treat with Sulla, but instead of serious negotiations they expounded on the glory of their city. Sulla sent them away saying: “I was sent to Athens, not to take lessons, but to reduce rebels to obedience.”
His spies then informed him that Aristion was neglecting the Heptachalcum. Sulla immediately sent sappers to undermine the wall. A midnight sack of Athens began, and after the taunts of Aristion, Sulla was not in a mood to be magnanimous. Blood literally flowed in the streets, it was only after the entreaties of a couple of his Greek friends (Midias and Calliphon) and the pleas of the Roman Senators in his camp that Sulla decided enough was enough. Sulla then advanced into Boeotia to take on Archeleus' armies, and remove them from Greece.
Battle of Chaeronea
Sulla lost no time moving to intercept the Pontic army and moved to occupy a hill called Philoboetus that branched off Mount Parnassus. Over 120,000 strong, it outnumbered Sulla's forces by at least 3 to 1. Next, Sulla occupied the ruined city of Parapotamii. Next Archelaus flung his right wing at the Roman left, Sulla seeing the danger of this maneuver raced over from the Roman right wing to help. Sulla stabilized the situation at which point Archelaus flung more troops in from his right flank. Sulla dashed back to his own right wing and ordered the general advance. Chaeronea was one of the great battles of history, Sulla had defeated a vastly superior force in terms of numbers, it was also the first time that the use of battlefield entrenchments are recorded to have been used.
Battle of Orchomenos
The government of Rome (ie Cinna) then sent out Lucius Valerius Flaccus with an army to relieve Sulla of command in the east. In the meantime, the two Roman armies camped next to each other and Sulla, not for the first time, encouraged his soldiers to spread dissension among Flaccus’ army. Many deserted to Sulla before Flaccus packed up and moved on north to threaten Mithridates’ northern dominions. In the meantime Sulla moved to intercept the new Pontic army. Not only was it a natural place for a smaller army to meet a much larger one, due to its natural defenses, but it afforded Sulla the ideal terrain to expand on his entrenchment innovations. It soon dawned on Archelaus what Sulla was up to. Sulla had not only been digging trenches, but dykes, and before long he had the Pontic army in deep trouble.
Second March on Rome
Determined to regain control of Rome, Sulla returned to Italy. With the support of Metellus Pius and others, Sulla's armies marched up Italy from the Port of Brindisium. Shortly afterwards, following a mad dash march to Rome, Sulla's army defeated the Samnite forces of Pontius Telesinus in November, 82 BC at the battle of Colline Gate. Sulla also had the aid of the young Pompey, who defeated Gneus Papirius Carbo's supporters in Sicily and Africa.
Dictator of Rome
At the beginning of 82 BC, Sulla was appointed dictator, rei publicae constituendae causa, by the Senate and subsequently ratified by the "Assembly of the People", with no limit on time in office. Sulla had total control of the city and empire of Rome. Sulla can be seen as setting the precedent for Julius Caesar's dictatorship, and the eventual end of the Republic under Augustus.
In total control of the city and its affairs, Sulla instituted a reign of terror, the likes of which had never been seen in Rome before. Proscribing or outlawing every one of his political opponents, Sulla ordered some 1,500 Roman nobles (i.e., senators and equites) executed. The State confiscated the wealth of the outlawed, making Sulla and his supporters vastly rich.
The young Caesar, as Cinna's son-in-law, was one of Sulla's targets and fled the city. He was saved through the efforts of his relatives, many of whom were Sulla's supporters, but Sulla noted in his memoirs that he regretted sparing Caesar's life because of the young man's notorious ambition. The historian Suetonius records that when agreeing to spare Caesar, Sulla warned those who were pleading his case that he would become a danger to them in the future, saying "In this Caesar there are many a Marius."
Only Quintus Sertorius, the last Marius supporter, held out against Sulla's armies under Metellus Pius in distant Hispania.
Without any political obstacle, Sulla enacted a series of reforms to put control of the State firmly in the hands of the Senate.
After two years of unchallenged power, Sulla stunned Rome by resigning the Dictatorship. This lesson in supreme confidence, Caesar later ridiculed - "Sulla did not know his political ABC's". In retrospect, of the two, Sulla was to have the last laugh, as it was he who died in his own bed. Sulla's purpose now was to write his memoirs (completed just before his death, but now lost). In his last address to the Senate, Sulla was keen to acknowledge him as his lifetime lover, to the dismay of the audience. With this merry company, Sulla died after a brief illness in 78 BC.
Sulla's legacy
Even though Sulla's laws reorganizing the legal system (courts), qualification for admittance to the Senate and regulation of governorships among many other initiatives remained on Rome's statutes for some considerable time, some of his legislation was repealed less than a decade after his death.
However, his most lasting legacy and the one he tried hardest to avoid, was the feeling among his successors that: "...if Sulla could do it, so can I..." Caesar, for all his disdain of Sulla, based his own grab for power very much on the Sullan model; he even based many of his greatest victories on Sulla's battles (use of battlefield entrenchments etc...). In the end, Sulla could not undo the damage done to the republican institution by the Gracchi, by Marius and finally by himself.
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