monasticism - Buddhist monasticism, Christian monasticism, Hindu monasticism, Islamic monasticism, Jain monasticism, Monasticism in other religions, Further reading

A form of religious life found in both Christianity (mostly in Roman Catholic and Orthodox circles) and Buddhism, emphasizing the perfection of the individual either through a solitary ascetic existence or more often through life in a consecrated community. Members of such communities are known as monks. In Christianity the movement is often traced back to Antony and Pachomius of Egypt (late 3rd-c). Although initially a lay movement, it soon became dominated by clergy, often marked by voluntary poverty and a life of devotion and worship. The most significant early monastic legislation was the rule of Benedict (480–543), which became a standard in Western Christianity. In the Middle Ages, monks were increasingly involved in scholarly research and copying manuscripts. In the 13th-c several new orders emerged, known as friars or mendicant orders, which combined monastic life with missionary preaching to those outside. Periods of decline and reform followed from the 14th-c to the 16th-c.

Monasticism (from Greek: monachos — a solitary person) is the religious practice in which one renounces worldly pursuits in order to fully devote one's life to spiritual work.

Many religions have monastic elements, including Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Jainism, though the expressions differ considerably. Both monks and nuns may also be called monastics.

Buddhist monasticism

Main article: Buddhist monasticism

The order of Buddhist monks and original nuns was founded by Gautama Buddha during his lifetime of over 2500 years ago. Monks and nuns were expected to live with a minimum of possessions, which were to be voluntarily provided by the lay community. Lay followers also provided the daily food that monks required, and provided shelter for monks when they were needed.

After the death of the Buddha, the Buddhist monastic order developed into a primarily cenobitic movement. The practice of living communally during the rainy vassa season, prescribed by the Buddha, gradually grew to encompass a settled monastic life centered on life in a community of practitioners. Most of the modern disciplinary rules followed by monks and nuns – the Patimokkha – relate to such an existing, prescribing in great detail proper methods for living and relating in a community of monks or nuns. Theravada monks follow around 227 rules.

Buddhist monasticism with its tradition of councils, missions, and being a source of knowledge and literacy spread from India to the middle east and eventually west, with Christian monasticism following in its footsteps in the areas where Emperor Ashoka sent missions.

The Buddhist , the male bhikkhu assembly, and the female bhikkhuni assembly. Initially consisting only of males, the Buddhist monastic order grew to include females after the Buddha's step-mother, Mahaprajapati, asked for and received permission to live as an ordained practitioner.

Monks and nuns are expected to fulfill a variety of roles in the Buddhist community. They are also expected to provide a living example for the laity, and to serve as a "field of merit" for lay followers – providing laymen and women with the opportunity to earn merit by giving gifts and support to the monks. In return for the support of the laity, monks and nuns are expected to live an austere life focused on the study of Buddhist doctrine, the practice of meditation, and the observance of good moral character.

A monk, known as a Bhikkhu in Pali or Bhikshu in Sanskrit, first ordains as a Samanera (novice) for a year or more. Samaneras live according to the Ten Precepts, but are not responsible for living by the full set of monastic rules. Nuns follow a similar progression, but are required to live as Samaneras for a longer periods of time- typically five years.

The disciplinary regulations for monks and nuns are intended to create a life that is simple and focused, rather than one of deprivation or severe asceticism. Celibacy is of primary importance in monastic discipline, being seen as the preeminent factor in separating the life of a monk from that of a 'householder'.

Christian monasticism

Main article: Christian monasticism

Monasticism in Christianity is a family of similar traditions that began to develop early in the history of the Christian Church, modeled upon Scriptural examples and ideals, but not mandated as an institution by the Scriptures.

While most people think of Christian or Catholic monks or nuns as "someone who lives in a monastery", from the Church's point of view the definition of a monk/nun is one who lives in a community under a rule and an abbot/abbess, the focus of the particulars of the life does not necessarily entail living in a monastery or performing any specific activity, rather the focus is on an ideal called the religious life, also called the state of perfection. In other words, a monk or nun is a person who has vowed to follow not only the commandments of the Church, but also the counsels (e.g., vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience).

Christian cenobitic monasticism as it is mainly known in the West started in Egypt. Originally, all Christian monks were hermits, and especially in the Middle East this continued to be very common until the decline of Syrian Christianity in the late Middle Ages.

The need for some form of organized spiritual guidance was obvious, and around 318 Saint Pachomius started to organize his many followers in what was to become the first Christian monastery.

In the West the rules for monastic communities were set a few generations later by Saint Benedict of Nursia who created the Rule of Saint Benedict at his monastery in Monte Cassino, it would become the most common rule throughout the Middle Ages, spawning many other Religious Orders, and it is still in use today.

The idea became popular, and other places followed:

Mar Awgin founded a monastery on Mt. St. Sabbas the Sanctified organized the monks of the Judean Desert in a monastery close to Bethlehem (483), and this is considered the mother of all monasteries of the Eastern Orthodox churches.

Around the 12th century, mendicant orders chose to live in city convents among the people instead of secluded in monasteries.

It is worth noting that the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, while not having a cenobitic tradition, expects the majority of its young men to serve as missionaries for two years, ideally beginning at the age of 19.

Hindu monasticism

In their quest to attain the spiritual goal of life, some Hindus choose the path of monasticism (sanyāsa). A Hindu monk is called a sanyāsī, sādhu, or swāmi. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their physical needs. Generally, Vaisnava monks shave their heads except for a small patch of hair on the back of the head, while Saivite monks let their hair and beard grow uncut.

A Sadhu's vow of renunciation typically forbids him from:

owning personal property apart from a bowl, a cup, two sets of clothing and medical aides such as eyeglasses;

Islamic monasticism

While many Muslims do not believe in monasticism (emphasizing the Qur'anic injunction (57:27), in which Allah rebukes monasticism as a man-made practice that is not divinely prescribed), various Sufi orders, or 'tariqas' encourage practices which resemble those of monastic brotherhoods in other faiths.

Dervishes — initiates of sufi orders — believe that love is a projection of the essence of God to the universe.

All genuine dervish brotherhoods trace their origins from the close companions of the Prophet Muhammad, Ali and Abu Bakr.

Whirling dance, which is the practice of the Mevlevi order in Turkey, is just one of the physical methods to try to reach religious ecstasy (majdhb) and connection with Allah.

Jain monasticism

Jainism has two branches, each has a slightly different take on monasticism. Digambara monks do not wear clothing;

Monasticism in other religions

Judaism Even though modern day Judaism does not support the monastic ideal, two thousand years ago Nazirite Jews were a common feature of the religion.

Sikhism specifically forbids the practice of monasticism.

Manichaeism had two types of followers, the auditors, and the elect.

Scientology maintains a "fraternal order" called the Sea Organization or just Sea Org. Sea Org members live communally with lodging, food, clothing, and medical care provided by the Church.

Ananda Marga has both monks and nuns (i.e. The monks and nuns are engaged in all kinds of direct services to society, so they have no scope for permanent retreat.

Yungdrung Bön is believed to have a rich monastic history. Bön monasteries exist today, however, the monks there practice Bön-Buddhism.

Further reading

Gruber, Mark.