Mongolian and S Siberian tribes who created the largest empire in ancient history (including C Asia, China, Korea, Russia, and Persia), of key importance in the process of cultural diffusion. It probably facilitated movement to Europe of Chinese printing, porcelain, explosives, and other technology, and the importation of new plants to China. Expansion began c.1200 under Genghis Khan, and culminated under Kublai Khan, by the end of the century. The core of Mongol power was the 130 000-strong army, known for its rapid movement, tactical skill, and horsemanship. The empire was linked by roads and couriers, and there was a written language based on Uighur, and a written legal code. There survives a 13th-c eye-witness account of the court's splendours. Lacking political organization, dominated by an alien militarism, and without formalized dynastic succession, the empire disintegrated in the 14th-c. About 3 million Mongols now live in Chinese Inner Mongolia, and about 2 million in Mongolia proper.
| Mongols | |
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| Total population | 10 million |
| Regions with significant populations | Mongolia, China, Russia |
| Language | Mongolic languages |
| Religion | Tibetan Buddhism,Shamanism, Christianity, Islam, None |
| Related ethnic groups | Khalkha, Daurs, Buryats, Evenks, Dorbots, Kalmyks, Oirats, Chakhars, Tumeds, Ordoses, Bayad, Dariganga, Urianhai, Uzemchin and Zakhchin. |
Mongols (Mongolian: Монгол Mongol) are an ethnic group that originated in what is now Mongolia, Russia, and China or more specifically on the Central Asian plateau north of the Gobi desert and south of Siberia.
They currently number about 10 million and speak the Mongol language. There are approximately 2.7 million Mongols in Mongolia, five million Mongols living in Inner Mongolia, China and one million Mongols live in Russia. The major body of the Mongols are the Khalkas.
Earlier history
Most modern Mongolians believe they are the descendents of the Huns, believed to be Turkic Koreans ares stronger than current Mongols.
Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan (c.
The Mongols were originally a confederation of tribes in competition with the Tatar Turks, Kerait, Merkit and Naiman confederations and therefore only one division of what is known today as the Mongol nation. Genghis Khan unified the Mongol people by absorbing the other confederations into his own, and the word "Mongol" came to mean the entire people.
Though few in number (approximately two million people at the height of their empire), Mongols were important in Eurasian history. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, the Mongols created the second largest empire in world history, ruling thirty-five million square kilometres (13.8 million square miles) and more than 100 million people, nearly equal to the British Empire in land area.
The Mongols were a group of nomadic people who in the 13th century found themselves encompassed by large, city-dwelling agrarian civilizations. Taking the strategic initiative, the Mongols exploited this power vacuum and linked all of these areas into a mutually supportive trade network.
Mongol Empire
The Mongols were nomadic people who raised livestock by pasturing and produced everything they needed from the herds. The unification of the Mongol tribes by Genghis Khan strengthened the country in the 13th century.
Genghis Khan found himself being chased by his father's enemies since he was 9 years old when his father Yesugei, a chief of a tribe, died of poison served by his enemy the Merkit clan at a wedding.
Mongol tribes frequently raided each other. This is clearly attested to by Genghis Khan's own personal history: Before he became the Great Khan (khaghan), his own wife was kidnapped in a raid by the Merkits - his father's enemies - and he had to organize a counterattack to rescue her.
After forming a union of tribes, Genghis Khan forbade the inter-tribal raids that contributed to poverty and instability. These tribes started to adopt the name of the never defeated tribe of the Mongols. Trade played a very important role for the Mongols. On the other hand, Mongols relied upon good intelligence for raids and warfare.
According to the Secret History of the Mongols, Genghis Khan never initiated war or attacked any country;
Conquest, in the Khan's initial viewpoint, was economical. The Mongols accessed items to improve their harsh living conditions. Troops and tribute had to be supplied for the Mongols welfare or the fate would be extinction. If there was no resistance, Mongols usually left the town unharmed and demanded that the townspeople pay them tribute.
Different theories exist as to why the Mongols initially behaved in such an extreme manner. From a military perspective, the Mongols were often far from home territory and greatly out-numbered, and therefore it was unwise to leave enemies at their rear. Terror also served as a useful weapon in reducing an opponent's ability to rally support against Mongol invasion. Theories on the economic relationships between nomads and towns, that was essential for the Mongols, are debated to this day.
As the Mongols grew more powerful, the initial strategy altered.
In 1227, Genghis Khan died; This advice was often interpretated, that Ogedei and his descendants should inherit the rulership of the Mongols. The armies of the Mongols had reached Poland, Hungary, and Egypt by 1241, and were poised to continue. When Ogedei Khan suddenly died, a messenger came to Subutai-the chief leader of Mongol troops conquering Europe asking him to return to Mongolia for two month mourning.
These events are credited in several counterfactual historical scenarios with saving European civilization from a second "Dark Age" precipitated by Mongol conquest. Evidence given in support of such theories usually include the swift and crushing early victories of the Mongol campaign in Poland and Hungary, and the disunified state of the other European powers. Besides this point of view often neglects the reported achievements under Mongol's rule.
Ethnic, cultural and religious diversity
The term Mongol, referring to the 12th and 13th century Mongol reign, included soldiers and generals in the Middle East, China, Eastern and central Europe who all fought under the identity of Mongols although not exclusively having a heritage in modern Mongolia. This is because the army generals were chosen for their proven abilities in the Mongol army and the country extended over Eurasia at that time.
In addition to his own blood brothers, Genghis Khan had at least three adopted brothers from different nationalities and ethnic groups among his enemies. Those adopted brothers were found by Genghis Khan's soldiers in savaged lands when they were young children and given to Genghis Khan's mother Oulen. These adopted brothers of Genghis Khan rose to high positions in Genghis Khan's armies and court because of their abilities and the skills taught them by Oulen.
Various members of the Mongol Court, including Sorghaghtani Beki, were Nestorian Christians. Mongols were originally shamans who pray to the supernatural God they believed existed beyond the sky and look down from the heavens. The Mongols and Genghis Khan maintained a policy of being open to all religions, it was known as particularly sympathetic to Christians (which may have helped contribute to the legend of Prester John). This, and ultimately the "Gates of Vienna," marked the farthest West the Mongol Empire would progress.
Kublai Khan quickly succeeded Mongka Khan, moved the court to Beijing favoring warmer weather, formed the Yuan dynasty, and re-started the invasion of China, in the first war fought with guns on both sides. After eighteen years, Kublai Khan conquered both Northern and Southern China, forming the largest (land) empire in history (famously described by Marco Polo).
However, by the early 14th century, the prominence of trade and a possible cooling of the world's climates led to worldwide outbreaks of plague, which encouraged revolt and invasion. Meanwhile, various Mongolian tribes fought against each other, usually Western Mongols (Oirats) against Eastern Mongols (Chakhars, Tumeds, Ordoses, or Khalkhas), and continued to threaten China's borders.
The internal struggle gave the emerging Manchus the opportunity to assimilate the Mongol tribes bit by bit. However, instead of helping Inner Mongols, Manchuria attacked Inner Mongols during a lull in action and conquered them before the war. In 1691, the Khalkhas of Outer Mongolia were converted into Tibetan Buddhism by their leader Zanabazar - great grandson of Genghis Khan. Zanabazar asked for the help of the Manchurian Emperor in order to defeat Khalkhas' Mongol brother the Oirat in war.
In the 1750s, the Qianlong Emperor completely destroyed the Oirats' Dzungar Empire in today's Xinjiang.
Ogedei Khan first introduced the post system to the world. When Khan issued a decree, the post people delivered it to the next post person, and the next post person to another, and thus the decree would be delivered to any location needed within a relatively short period of time. The post people could use anyone's horse if necessary or in an emergency - and families and people had to give the post people food and water if the post people asked for it.
For a more detailed analysis see Military advances of Genghis Khan and Mongol military tactics and organization.
Scope of Mongol operations
The Mongols were one of the most feared forces ever to take the field of battle. Still others were experts in fortification, but none combined combat power on land with such devastating range, speed, scope and effectiveness as the Mongols.
The Mongols also deployed technical expertise, using siege experts, sappers and mass labor to help destroy fortified strongpoints. From their small niche on the Mongolian steppe, the Mongol warriors defeated some of the world's most powerful, well established and sophisticated empires, claiming over one-twelfth of the world's land surface at their height, seen by some as the largest contiguous empire in human history -- stretching from Asia, to Europe to the Middle East.
Weapons and equipment of the Mongols: the Mongols deployed three general weapons; Of these the most important was the dreaded Mongol Bow. Like many Asiatic bows, the Mongol bow was composite, made from glue, horn, sinew, wood and bamboo.
Morale and makeup of the Mongol warrior and their mounts: The Mongol was an exceedingly tough warrior. The Mongol was always seemed to identify with his horse -- the equally tough, hardy steppe pony. They were inseparable, the horse not only providing the means of transport into battle, but being very important to the Mongol steppe economy, providing milk, blood, and meat for food, hair and skin for clothing and tents, and glue and sinews for bow and arrow making. On the march, the Mongol warrior carried a string of ponies, rotating them as remounts to keep up the momentum of the advance. In a tight spot the Mongol would bleed selected ponies, using their blood to assuage his hunger. This extremely lean style of operation contributed to the rapidity of Mongol maneuvers. Typically, the Mongol was practical about his mounts and would discard or slaughter them as demanded by the situation without sentiment.
Organization and tactics of the Mongols:
Numerous accounts of the Mongols typically call them a "horde" as if they were merely a mob of savage, milling horsemen. Nothing could be further from the truth: the term "horde", in fact, derives from the Mongol "ordu", simply meaning camp.
The tumen (meaning ten thousand) decimal system and leadership The armies of Genghis Khan were organized by tens, hundreds, thousands, and tens of thousands, and each segment had commanders, who were chosen by proven ability, not because of their relations to the Khan. - In reality they were tightly organized troops, parceled into units of ten, and from that basic building block, grouped into larger formations roughly corresponding to regiments and other units, finally culminating in the distinct field force of 10,000 horsemen, the famous Mongol tumen.
Swarm/encirclement tactics and massed firepower in the field - Mongol tactics were marked by speed, surprise and massive mobility. Upon contact the Mongols played cat and mouse, standing-off while devastating opponents with massed arrow fire, or charging in close only to veer off while discharging yet another vicious rain of shafts. The constant rain of arrows, the converging swarms of charges and probes, all carried out by the encircling Mongols, were usually enough to "soften up" an enemy. As is well known, a force is most vulnerable in retreat, and the Mongols were ruthless.
Flexible tactics -- ruses and ambushes- The Mongols were not rigid in their thinking, nor did they adhere to European notions of "chivalry".
Mongol siege warfare and Logistics - The Mongol logistical system was distinguished by its mobility and practicality. The Mongol armies lived off the land extensively -- bad news indeed for hapless civilians in their path.
Primarily a cavalry force, the Mongols made wide use of captured or hired siege engineers to overcome fortifications. The Mongols were unsentimental and used every trick in the book, from sapper tunnels to treachery. The Mongol era was characterized by supply trains hauling booty to their core homeland in the steppes.
Mongol terror - Mongol terror and atrocity was notable even for the 13th century. Long before Imperial Japan used the phrase, Mongol operations in many areas could indeed be classified as a "Three All" policy- "burn all, kill all, destroy all." In a cruel age, where few nations or tribes won prizes for humane behavior, the Mongols added their own distinct stamp.
Defeat of the Mongols Undefeated in most encounters, Mongols operations under Genghis Khan and his later successors stretched from Asia, to Central Europe, to Russia, to India, and to the Middle East.
The tribal structure, for one, was a relatively fragile one, held together initially by Genghis Khan's ruthless will. Such division arguably saved the people of Europe, for Mongol victories penetrated as far as Poland and Hungary and could have gone much further.
Over time, some conquered peoples were able to dilute, absorb, or blunt Mongol advances. Another factor was that success bred division, so that in time, like the Vikings, Mongol came to fight Mongol over the spoils of victory!
Some Mongolian historians believe that Tibetan Buddhism, introduced to Mongolia in the 17th century, played some role in blunting the power of the Mongols.
The Mongols also were never really tested for an extended time on terrain unsuitable to mass cavalry sweeps, nor were they noted for exploits in the naval arena. The Mongols also met defeat in Japan, failing to project their power over a large body of water and maintain a foothold on a hostile shore.
Mongol manpower also was not unlimited.
The Mongols attempted two unsuccessful invasions of Japan (see Mongol invasions of Japan).
The Mongols succeeded very briefly in their invasion of Dai Viet in the northern part of contemporary Vietnam, but were soon defeated by the Vietnamese general Tran Hung Dao after almost three decades.
Estimated fatalities from the Mongol campaigns (note they are not undisputed):
1200-1215, Northern China — thirty million (including Yanjing number). 1241, Batu Khan defeats Bela IV of Hungary at the Battle of Muhi, nearly 500,000 people killed in assault. 1242 the Mongols turn back to attend to the election of a new Grand Khan.Modern history
In 1911, Mongolia revolted against Manchu rule with Russian support, forming modern Mongolia. However, the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party, for reasons both practical and philosophical, enacted an often brutal if not entirely effective sweeping aside of Mongolian tradition, working against the Buddhist religions, clan-ism, and script, and for collectivism (as opposed to the traditional nomadic lifestyle).
Inner Mongolia is an autonomous region within China. However, Inner Mongolians are exempt from the government's one-child policy, and the PRC officially promotes the Mongol language.
In the past fifty years, there has been an increase in Mongolian immigration to the United States.
The Russian Federation also has some autonomous regions for descendants of the Mongols, such as the Buryats:
Republic of Kalmykia (Western Mongolians - Oirats) Ust-Orda Buryat Autonomous Okrug Agin-Buryat Autonomous Okrug Buryat RepublicSome major and many minor Mongol ethnic groups also live in Central Asia, Transoxania, China and more. Pakistan Bayin'gholin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture(Autonomous Prefecture of Xianjiang) Börtala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture(Autonomous Prefecture of Xianjiang) Other autonomous areas of Xianjiang also include Mongolian minority groups ranging from 4% to up.
Many ethnic groups which had historical chain with the steppe warriors have some mixture with them.
Contrary to the popular bias based on history, the Mongols of Mongolia, especially those the nomads, are regarded by most Westerners with first-hand knowledge as some of the kindest and warmest people in the world.
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