In philosophy, the metaphysical doctrine either that only one substantial thing really exists in the universe, as in the systems of Parmenides, Spinoza, and Hegel, and thus opposed to pluralism; or that there is only one kind of thing, as in materialism (matter) and idealism (mind).
Monism is the metaphysical and theological view that all is of one essence, principle, substance or energy.
Monism is to be distinguished from dualism, which holds that ultimately there are two kinds of substance, and from pluralism, which holds that ultimately there are many kinds of substance.
Monism is often erroneously seen in relation to pantheism, panentheism, and an immanent God.
Theological growth and breadth
Many forms of Hinduism (including Vedanta and Yoga), Taoism, Pantheism, Rastafari and similar systems of thought explore the mystical and spiritual elements of a monistic philosophy. With increasing awareness of these systems of thought, western spiritual and philosophical climate has seen a growing understanding of monism.
Philosophical monism
The origins of the term and understanding for the term Monad historically have their roots in the teachings of Pythagoras. Monad derives from the Greek word μόνος or Monos meaning single.
Monism is often seen as partitioned into three basic types:
Monism is further defined according to three kinds:
Idealism, phenomenalism, or mentalistic monism which holds that only mind is real. Neutral monism, which holds that both the mental and the physical can be reduced to some sort of third substance, or energy.Certain other positions are hard to pigeonhole into the above categories, including:
Functionalism, like materialism, holds that the mental can ultimately be reduced to the physical, but also holds that all critical aspects of the mind are also reducible to some substrate-neutral "functional" level. Anomalous monism, a position proposed by Donald Davidson in the 1970s as a way to resolve the mind-body problem. It could be considered (by the above definitions) either physicalism or neutral monism. Davidson holds that there is only physical matter, but that all mental objects and events are perfectly real and are identical with (some) physical matter. This monism was widely considered an advance over previous identity theories of mind and body, because it does not entail that one must be able to provide an actual method for redescribing any particular kind of mental entity in purely physical terms. Reflexive monism, a position developed by Max Velmans in 2000, as a method of resolving the difficulties associated with both dualist and reductionist agendas concerning consciousness, by viewing physical phenomena-as-perceived as being part of the contents of consciousness.Monism, Pantheism, and Panentheism
Following a long and still current tradition H.P.
Although, like Spinoza, some pantheists may also be monists, and monism may even be essential to some versions of pantheism (like Spinoza's), not all pantheists are monists.
Monism in religious and spiritual systems
Monism is found in the Rig Veda, in which hymnists speak of one being-non-being that 'breathed without breath,' and which singular force self-projected into the cosmic existence.Nevertheless, the first system in Hinduism that clearly, unequivocably explicated absolute monism was that of Advaita (or nondualist) Vedanta (see Advaita Vedanta) as expounded by Adi Shankaracharya. Such monistic thought also extends to other Hindu systems like Yoga and non-dualist Tantra.T
Another type of monism, qualified monism, from the school of Ramanuja or Vishishtadvaita, admits that the universe is part of God, or Narayana, a type of either pantheism or panentheism, but sees a plurality of souls and substances within this supreme Being. This type of monism, monistic theism, which includes the concept of a personal God as a universal, omnipotent Supreme Being who is both Immanent and Transcendent, is prevalent in Hinduism. (Monistic theism is not to be confused with absolute monotheism where God is viewed as transcendent only. In absolute monotheism, the notion of Immanence divinity (essence of God) present in all things is absent.)
Christianity
Christianity, being monotheistic, can be said to combine both Monistic and Dualistic assumptions, akin to Neoplatonic thought such as expressed by Plotinus, ultimately concluding that there is one transcendent, immanent, omnipotent, ineffable God.
Some Christians inveigh against the 'dangers of monism', asserting that in order to resolve all things to a single substrate, one dissolves God in the process. Much Christian thought has insisted that while the universe is dependent on God for its existence, it is also of a separate substance from God. Some contend that this means that monism is false, while others argue that there is a distinction between Ultimate Essence, and the differentiated essences (substances), so that the "single substrate" essentially is God.
Valentinianism
Valentinianism was a religious doctrine named after the Gnostic theologian Valentinius who lived in the 2nd century. While Gnostic traditions are typically regarded as dualistic, "a standard element in the interpretation of Valentinianism and similar forms of Gnosticism is the recognition that they are fundamentally monistic" (Schoedel, William, "Gnostic Monism and the Gospel of Truth" in Bentley Layton (ed.) The Rediscovery of Gnosticism, Vol.1: The School of Valentinus, E.J.
Valentinian sources regularly proclaim God (which is more akin to an indescribable Neoplatonist monad than the typical Orthodox Christian conception of a transcendent entity nevertheless possessed of a recognisable persona) to permeate all, and that the material universe is founded on error, as is our perception of it.
Materiality is occasionally described by the Valentinians as being exterior to the monad, and yet there are also passages that describe our experience in ignorance and in this world as a bad dream.
Judaism
In Jewish thought, God is held to be immanent within creation for two interrelated reasons. Secondly, and simultaneously, Judaism holds as axiomatic that God is an absolute unity, and that He is Perfectly Simple - thus if His sustaining power is within nature, then His essence is also within nature.
Note that, at the same time, Jewish Thought considers God as separate from all physical, created things (transcendent) and as existing outside of time (eternal).
A Course in Miracles
A Course in Miracles, a spiritual self-study course published in 1995, represents a thought system of pure mentalistic monism or non-dualism.
In the Course, only God and His Creation, which is Spirit and has nothing to do with the world, are real. The purpose of the perceptual world is to ensure our separate, individual existence apart from God but avoid the responsibility and project the guilt onto others. As we learn to give the world another purpose and recognize our perceptual errors, we also learn to look past them or "forgive," as a way to awaken gradually from the dream and finally remember our true Identity in God.
The Course’s non-dualistic metaphysics is similar to Advaita Vedanta.
Several modern religious movements, for example the organizations within the New Thought Movement and the Unity Church, may be said to have a particularly mentalistic monism orientation. The theology of Christian Science is explicitly mentalistic monism: it teaches that all that exists is God and God's ideas;
The West is inundated with physicalistic monism. Since we are constantly taught this it may make the idea of mentalistic monism hard to grasp.
Historically, monism has been promoted in spiritual terms on several occasions, notably by Ernst Haeckel.
Paul Carus called himself "an atheist who loves God", and advocated "henotheism", which is often seen as monist or pantheist in nature.
Ancient philosophers
The following pre-Socratic philosophers described reality as being monistic:
Shankara: The Self. Empedocles: Earth, Air, Fire, Water: Four Elements - no longer monism.
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