A Muslim empire founded c.1300 by Sultan Osman I (12591326), and originating in Asia Minor. Ottoman forces entered Europe in 1345, conquered Constantinople in 1453, and by 1520 controlled most of SE Europe (including part of Hungary), the Middle East, and N Africa. Following the golden age of Sulaiman the Magnificent, the empire began a protracted decline. During the 19th-c and early 20th-c, Ottoman power was eroded by the SE European ambitions of Russia and Austria, the N African ambitions of France, Britain, and Italy, the emergence of the Balkan nations, and internal loss of authority. It joined the Central Powers in 1914, and collapsed following their defeat in 1918.
Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyyeدولت عليه عثمانيه
Ottoman Empire
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Empire |
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Late Ottoman flag (1793)
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Motto: دولت ابد مدت Devlet-i Ebed-müddet ("The Eternal State") |
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| Anthem: Ottoman imperial anthem | ||||
| At the height of its power (1683) | ||||
| Capital |
Söğüt (1299-1326) Bursa (1326-1365) Edirne (1365-1453) Kostantiniyye (Istanbul) (1453-1922) 41°00′N 29°00′E |
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| Language(s) | Ottoman Turkish | |||
| Government | Monarchy | |||
| Sultans | ||||
| - 1281–1326 | Osman I | |||
| - 1918–1922 | Mehmed VI | |||
| Grand Viziers | ||||
| - 1320-1331 | Alaeddin Pasha | |||
| - 1920-1922 | Ahmed Tevfik Pasha | |||
| History | ||||
| - Foundation | 1299 | |||
| - Partition | November 17 1922 | |||
| Area | ||||
| - 1910 |
540,766 km2 208,791 sq mi |
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| Population | ||||
| - 1871 est. Density |
120.1 /km² 311 /sq mi |
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| Currency | Akçe, Kuruş, Lira | |||
The Ottoman Empire (Ottoman Turkish: دولت عليه عثمانيه - Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye; literally, "The Sublime Ottoman State"), also known in the West as the Turkish Empire, existed from AD 1299 to AD 1922. At the height of its power in the 16th and 17th centuries, the tri-continental Ottoman Empire controlled much of Southeastern Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar (and in 1553 the Atlantic coast of North Africa beyond Gibraltar) in the west to the Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf in the east, from the edge of Austria and Slovakia and the hinterland beyond Ukraine in the north to Sudan and Yemen in the south.
With Istanbul, (the Ottoman Turkish name of old Constantinople) as its capital, it was the final great Mediterranean Empire and heir to the legacy of Rome and Byzantium in many ways. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman Empire was among the world's most powerful states, threatening the powers of eastern Europe with its steady advance through the Balkans. On several occasions, the Ottoman army invaded central Europe, laying siege to Vienna in 1529 and again in 1683 in an attempt to conquer the Habsburgs, and was finally repulsed only by coalitions of European powers on the sea and on land.
The Ottoman Empire steadily declined during the 19th century, and met its demise at the beginning of the 20th century after its defeat in World War I in the Middle Eastern theatre with the other Central Powers. In the aftermath of the war, the Ottoman government collapsed and the victorious powers partitioned the Empire. The new Republic declared the Sultan and his family, the Ottoman Dynasty, as persona non grata of Turkey.
History
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History of the Ottoman Empire |
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| Rise (1299–1453) | |||||||||
| Growth (1453–1683) | |||||||||
| Stagnation (1683–1827) | |||||||||
| Decline (1828–1908) | |||||||||
| Dissolution (1908–1922) | |||||||||
| See also: | |||||||||
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The history of the Ottoman Empire spans more than six centuries, and primary documentation of the empire's relations with other powers is to be found in the archives of thirty-nine nations. Earlier historiography of the empire was based largely on analysis of Ottoman military victories and defeats;
An examination of Ottoman history from a political and military viewpoint will be presented here;
Origins
The arpita ancestors of the Ottoman Dynasty formed part of the westward Turkic migrations from Central Asia that began during the 10th century.
Under the suzerainty of the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate, the Kayı tribe of Oğuz Turks created what eventually became known as the Ottoman Beylik in western Anatolia. font-size: 85%;">
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Military & Political History |
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|---|---|---|
| Rise of the Ottoman Empire | ||
| Time Span | 154 years | |
| # Sultans | 8 | |
| Soc-Econ | Enlargement | |
| See also | ||
The name Ottoman derives from Osman I (Arabic: Uthman), son of Ertuğrul, who became the first Bey when he declared the independence of the Ottoman state in 1299. While the other Turkish Beyliks were preoccupied with internal conflicts, Osman was able to extend the frontiers of Ottoman settlement towards the edge of the Byzantine Empire. He moved the Ottoman capital to Bursa, and shaped the early political development of the nation. In contrast to many contemporary states, the Ottoman bureaucracy tried to avoid military rule.
In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. After defeat in Battle of Plocnik, the Turkish victory at the Battle of Kosovo effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, and paved the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe. This event marked the final defeat and collapse of the Byzantine state, and the city became the new capital of the Ottoman Empire. font-size: 85%;">
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Military & Political History |
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| Growth of the Ottoman Empire | ||
| Time Span | 230 years | |
| # Sultans | 11 | |
| Soc-Econ | Enlargement | |
| See also | ||
This period in Ottoman history can roughly be divided into two distinct eras: a golden era of territorial, economic, and cultural growth prior to 1566, followed by an era of relative military and political stagnation.
Following the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman Empire entered a long period of conquest and expansion, extending its borders deep into Europe and North Africa. and on the sea, the Ottoman navy established the empire as a great trading power. The rise of western European nations as naval powers and the development of alternate sea routes from Europe to Asia and the New World damaged the Ottoman economy. But in spite of these difficulties, the empire remained a major expansionist power until the Battle of Vienna in 1683, the first major Ottoman defeat on European soil.
Expansion and apogee (1453–1566)
The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 cemented the status of the empire as the preeminent power in southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. Selim I established Ottoman rule in Egypt, and created a naval presence on the Red Sea. After capturing Belgrade in 1521, Süleyman conquered Kingdom of Hungary establishing Ottoman rule in Hungary, by winning the Battle of Mohacs in 1526. During the reign of Süleyman, Transylvania, Walachia and, intermittently, Moldavia, became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. The exploits of the Ottoman admiral Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, who commanded the Turkish navy during Süleyman's reign, included a number of impressive military victories. France and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Hapsburg rule in southern and central Europe, became strong allies during this period. In fact, the Ottoman Empire was by this time a significant and accepted part of the European political sphere, and entered into a military alliance with France, England and Holland against Habsburg Spain, Italy and Habsburg Austria.
As the 16th century progressed, Ottoman naval superiority was challenged by the upstart sea powers of western Europe, particularly Portugal, in the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean and the Spice Islands. With the Ottomans blockading sea-lanes to the East and South, the European powers were driven to find another way to the ancient Silk and Spice routes, now under absolute Ottoman control.
Revolts and Revival (1566–1683)
The latter half of the 16th century marked the start of European efforts to curb the Ottoman chokehold on overland trade routes. In southern Europe, a coalition of European trading powers on the Italian peninsula formed an alliance to weaken the Ottoman grip on the waters of the Mediterranean Sea. and in fact, this battle was considered by some earlier historians to signal the beginning of Ottoman decline. This stalemate was partly a reflection of simple geographical limits: in the pre-mechanized age, Vienna marked the furthest point that an Ottoman army could march from Istanbul during the early-spring to late-autumn campaigning season.
Economically, the huge influx of Spanish silver from the New World caused a sharp devaluation of the Ottoman currency and rampant inflation.
However, the 17th century was not simply an era of stagnation and decline, but also key period in which the Ottoman state and its structures began to adapt to new pressures and new realities, internal and external. Notably, Murad IV was the last Ottoman emperor who went to war in front of his army. Despite internal conflicts within the Ottoman bureaucracy, and between the bureaucracy and military, the 17th century saw the empire expand its frontiers to their furthest reach, with notable gains under the Köprülü administration in Crete, Southern Ukraine and Podolia.
The defeat of Ottoman forces led by Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha at the Second Siege of Vienna in 1683, at the hands of the combined armies of Poland and the Holy Roman Empire under Jan III Sobieski, was the decisive event that swung the balance of power in the region in favor of the European nations. Under the terms of the Treaty of Karlowitz, which ended the Great Turkish War in 1699, the Ottomans ceded nearly all of Ottoman Hungary, Transylvania, the Morea and Podolia to Austria and Poland.
Decline (1699–1908)
The long period of Ottoman decline is typically broken by historians into an era of failed reforms and a subsequent era of modernization. The military and political details of this period are covered in two separate articles: the stagnation of the Ottoman Empire (1699–1827), when the empire began to lose territory along its western borders, but managed to maintain its stature as a great regional power; and the decline of the Ottoman Empire (1828–1908), when the empire lost territory on all fronts, and there was administrative instability due to the breakdown of centralized government. font-size: 85%;">
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Military & Political History |
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| Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire | ||
| Time Span | 133 years | |
| # Sultans | 11 | |
| Soc-Econ | ||
| See also | ||
Further wars were lost, and territories ceded, to Austria in the Balkans. A series of wars were fought between the Russian and Ottoman empires from the 17th to the 19th centuries. Ottoman science and technology had been highly regarded in medieval times, as a result of Ottoman scholars' synthesis of classical learning with Islamic philosophy and mathematics, and knowledge of such Chinese advances in technology as gunpowder and the magnetic compass. The region was peaceful between 1718–1730, after the Ottoman victory against Russia in the Pruth Campaign in 1712 and the subsequent Treaty of Passarowitz brought a period of pause in warfare. there were attempts to improve the image of the Ottoman state; Later on in Ottoman history there were educational and technological reforms, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as Istanbul Technical University; font-size: 85%;">
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Military & Political History |
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| Decline of the Ottoman Empire | ||
| Time Span | 82 years | |
| # Sultans | 5 | |
| Soc-Econ | Reformation | |
| See also | ||
The period of the Ottoman Empire's decline was characterised by the reorganization and transformation of most of the empire's structures in an attempt to bolster the empire against increasingly powerful rivals. at the same time, it faced military challenges in defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation: Egypt, for instance, was occupied by the French in 1798, while Cyprus was loaned to the British in 1878 in exchange of Britain's favours at the Congress of Berlin following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire at the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78.
The rise of nationalism swept through many countries during the 19th century, and the Ottoman Empire was not immune. A burgeoning national consciousness, together with a growing sense of ethnic nationalism, made nationalistic thought one of the most significant Western ideas imported by the Ottoman empire, as it was forced to deal with nationalism-related issues both within and beyond its borders. Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching consequences during the 19th century and determined much of Ottoman policy during the early 20th century. Many Ottoman Turks questioned whether the policies of the state were to blame: some felt that the sources of ethnic conflict were external, and unrelated to issues of governance. While this era was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question. and following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, independence was formally granted to Serbia, Romania and Montenegro, with the other Balkan territories remaining under Ottoman control. However, the subsequent constitution, called the Kanûn-ı Esâsî (meaning "Basic Law" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the Young Ottomans, survived for only two years.
Despite the empire's label as the "Sick man of Europe", from an economic perspective, the empire's actual weakness did not reside in its developing economy, but the cultural gap which separated it from the European powers. (See socioeconomics during the Ottoman reformation era.)
Dissolution (1908–1922)
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Military & Political History |
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|---|---|---|
| Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire | ||
| Time Span | 14 years | |
| # Sultans | 2 | |
| Soc-Econ | Reformation | |
| See also | ||
The period of the Ottoman Empire's final dissolution began with the onset of the Second Constitutional Era (or İkinci Meşrûtiyet Devri in Turkish). The new Balkan states which were formed at the end of the 19th century sought additional territories from the Ottoman provinces of Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace, on the grounds of ethnic nationalism.
The Ottoman Empire took part in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I, under the terms of the Ottoman-German Alliance. The Russian Revolution of 1917 gave the Ottomans the opportunity to regain lost ground and Ottoman forces managed to take Azerbaijan in the final stages of the war, but the Empire was forced to cede these gains at the end of World War I. The core Armenian resistance group formed an independent provisional government in May 1915, prompting the Ottoman government to accuse the Armenians of being in collaboration with the invading Russian forces in eastern Anatolia, against their native state.
During the first World War, the Ottoman government also faced difficulties on the home front.
Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire happened in the aftermath of the WWI. The establishment of the Turkish national movement resulted in the creation of the Grand National Assembly (Büyük Millet Meclisi) in Ankara on 23 April 1920, which refused to recognize the Ottoman government in Istanbul and the invading forces in Turkey, raised a "people's army" and expelled the invading Greek, Italian and French forces. Turkish revolutionaries eventually freed the Turkish Straits and Istanbul, and abolished the Ottoman sultanate on 1 November 1922.
Ultimately, the fall of the Ottoman Empire can be attributed to the failure of its economic structure; In many ways, the circumstances surrounding the Ottoman Empire's fall closely paralleled those surrounding the fall of the Roman Empire, particularly in terms of the ongoing tensions between the empire's different ethnic groups, and the various governments' inability to deal with these tensions. font-size: 85%;">
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Economical History of Ottoman Empire |
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| Enlargement Era | ||
| Reformation Era | ||
| See also | Capitulations | |
The economic structure of the Empire was defined by its geopolitical structure. The Ottoman Empire stood between the West and the East, thus blocking the land route eastward and forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators to set sail in search of a new route to the Orient. When Christopher Columbus first journeyed to America in 1492, the Ottoman Empire was at its zenith; Modern Ottoman studies think that the change in relations between the Ottomans and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in significance of the land routes to the East (as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and Mediterranean) as parallelling the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself. font-size: 85%;">
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State organisation of Ottoman Empire |
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| House of Osman | ||
| Grand Vizer, Divan | ||
| Imperial Government | ||
| See also | Subdivisions | |
In diplomatic circles, the empire was often referred to as the "Sublime Porte", a literal translation of the Ottoman Turkish Bâb-ı Âlî, which was the only gate of the imperial Topkapı Palace that was open to foreigners, and was where the sultan greeted ambassadors.
Unlike many states, the Ottoman Empire was happy to use the talents of Greeks (and other Christians), Muslims and Jews, in revolutionizing its administrative system. The nomadic Turkic forms of land tenure were largely retained —with a number of unique adjustments— in the Ottoman period. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran continued to be important in Ottoman administrative circles. Ultimately, the Ottoman administrative system was a blend of influences derived from the Turks, the Byzantines, and the Islamic world.
The Ottomans were primarily administrators and not producers, in the sense that the empire did not employ a program of economic exploitation (as did the colonial empires of the modern European states). According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders within the overarching context of orthodox Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.
House of Osman
The Ottoman sultan, also known as the pâdişâh (or "lord of kings"), served as the empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control.
Throughout Ottoman history, however —despite the supreme de jure authority of the sultans and the occasional exercise of de facto authority by Grand Viziers— there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. There were only two attempts in the whole of Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Osmanlı dynasty, both failures, which is suggestive of a political system which for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability.
Imperial Harem
The Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. Some of the most talented devşirme would come to Topkapı Palace, where they were trained for high positions within the Ottoman court or military.
Imperial Government
Further information: Subdivisions of the Ottoman Empire, List of Ottoman Grand ViziersThough the state apparatus of the Ottoman Empire underwent many reforms during its long history, a number of its basic structures remained essentially the same.
The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a Beylik, was composed of the elders of the tribe. The Sublime Porte, which became synonymous with the Ottoman government, was in fact the gate to the Grand Vizier's headquarters, and the place where the sultan formally greeted foreign ambassadors. At times throughout Ottoman history, the authority of the Grand Vizier was to equal (and on some occasions even surpass) that of the sultan.
After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy without executive powers, and a parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces.
At the height of its power, the Ottoman Empire contained 29 provinces, in addition to the tributary principalities of Moldavia, Transylvania, and Wallachia.
Insignia
The Tughra were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35.
Society
One of the successes of the Ottoman Empire was the unity that it brought about among its highly varied populations. While the main reason for this was the Empire's military strength and use of intimidation as a means of control in newly conquered territories, it may also be ascribed in part to the laws of Islam, which stated that Muslims, Christians, and Jews —who constituted the vast majority of the Ottoman population— were all related in that they were "People of the Book" (Ahl al-Kitâb). As early as the reign of Mehmed II, extensive rights were granted to Phanariot Greeks, and many Jews were invited to settle in Ottoman territory.
Concept of Nation
See also: OttomanismUnder Ottoman rule the major religious groups were allowed to establish their own communities, called millets, each retaining its own religious laws, traditions, and language under the general protection of the sultan. Millets were led by religious chiefs, who served as secular as well as religious leaders and thus had a substantial interest in the continuation of Ottoman rule.
Ultimately, the Ottoman Empire's relatively high degree of tolerance for ethnic differences proved to be one of its greatest strengths in integrating the new regions until the rise of nationalism (this non-assimilative policy became a weakness during the dissolution of the empire that neither the first or second parliaments could successfully address).
"...the Ottoman family was ethnically Turkish in its origins, as were some of its supporters and subjects. The Ottoman empire succeeded because it incorporated the energies of the vastly varied peoples it encountered, quickly transcending its roots in the Turkish nomadic migrations from Central Asia into the Middle East." However, Ottoman policies were based on a millet perspective in which each millet had the right to govern their own domain, so there were places in the Ottoman Empire where slavery existed. Trafficking in slaves was expressively forbidden by the Ottoman application of sharia, or Islamic law. It was, in fact, considered an insult to term an Ottoman man as a slave-master, and there were incidents in which Ottomans responded unsympathetically to any who even mentioned the idea of slavery to them. By the era of Tanzimat, the Ottoman Empire aimed to gradually limit the scope of slavery. However, the 'slave' or kul (subject) of the Sultan had high status within Ottoman society, and this group included the highest officers of state and the military elite, all well remunerated, so to consider them 'slaves' (in the way the term is generally understood in the West) is misleading. Conflicts emerged within the immigrant community and the Ottoman Establishment, at times, intervened on the side of the slaves.
Culture
Further information: Ottoman poetry, Prose of the Ottoman Empire, Costumes of the Ottoman EmpireMany different cultures lived under the umbrella of the Ottoman Empire, and as a result, a specifically "Ottoman" culture can be difficult to define. To some extent, there existed a Turkish Ottoman culture, a Greek Ottoman culture, an Armenian Ottoman culture, and so on. However, there was also, to a great extent, a specific melding of cultures that can be said to have reached its highest levels among the Ottoman elite, who were composed of a myriad of different ethnic and religious groups.
One of the roots of Ottoman culture comes from the Oghuz Turks with their Central Asian Turkic nomadic culture. Following Sultan Mehmed II's capture of Constantinople (later named Istanbul) in 1453, many aspects of Byzantine— and, more broadly, European— culture began to be integrated into Ottoman culture.
This Ottoman multicultural perspective is reflected in their policies. One of the reasons that the Ottoman Empire lasted as long as it did was its tolerant attitude, originating from the Ottomans nomadic inheritance, in comparison to the attitude prevailing elsewhere in medieval times (east and west). This meant that the Ottoman State pursued multi-cultural and multi-religious policies. (Two examples of this can be seen in the Ottoman justice system and the independent regional governors.) As the Ottomans moved further west, the Ottoman leaders absorbed some of the culture of conquered regions. Intercultural marriages also played their part in creating the characteristic Ottoman elite culture. When compared to Turkish folk culture, the influence of these new cultures in creating the culture of the Ottoman elite is very apparent.
Architecture
Ottoman architecture was influenced by Seljuk, Persian, Byzantine, Greek and Islamic architecture, but came to develop a style all of its own. The years 1300-1453 (Rise Period) constitute the early or first Ottoman period, when Ottoman art was in search of new ideas. The years 1453-1600, known as the classical period, coinciding with the Empire's expansion, is the period when Ottoman art was at its most confident. During the years of the stagnation period, Ottoman architecture moved away from this style however.
Concepts of Ottoman architecture mainly circle around the mosque. Besides the mosque, it is also possible to find good examples of Ottoman architecture in soup kitchens, theological schools, hospitals, Turkish baths and tombs.
Examples of Ottoman architecture of the classical period, aside from Istanbul and Edirne, can also be seen in Egypt, Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Hungary, where mosques, bridges, fountains and schools were built.
Language
See also: Turkish languageOttoman Empire had a unique multilingualism which attributed to its cosmopolitan structure and cultural richness. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages, some Ottoman or Persian if they were educated, and some Arabic if they were Muslim.
Ottoman Turkish was a variety of Turkish, highly influenced by Persian and Arabic. Throughout the vast Ottoman bureaucracy and, in particularly, within the Ottoman court in later times, a version of Turkish was spoken, albeit with a vast mixture of both Arabic and Persian grammar and vocabulary. If the basic grammar was still largely Turkish, the inclusion of virtually any word in Arabic or Persian in Ottoman made it a language which was essentially incomprehensible to any Ottoman subject who had not mastered Arabic, Persian or both.
Music
Further information: Janissary Music, Roma music, Belly dance, Turkish folk musicAs music was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite, a number of the Ottoman sultans were accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as Selim III, whose compositions are still frequently performed today. Due to a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music, and folk music.
Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of Byzantine music, Arabic music, and Persian music.
Cuisine
When one talks of Ottoman cuisine, one refers to the cuisine of the Capital - Istanbul, and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that all the populations enjoyed. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through Ramadan events, and through the cooking at Yalis of Pashas, and from here on spread to the rest of the population.
Lifestyle
The Ottoman court life in many aspects assembled ancient traditions of the Persian Shahs, but had many Greek and European influences.
The court (Topkapı)
Further information: Harem (household) and Topkapı PalaceThe culture that evolved around the court was known as the Ottoman Way. This included knowing the languages Persian, Arabic and Ottoman Turkish, and how to behave in different settings: in court, in front of the sultan, and on formal and religious occasions.
The provincial capitals
Apart from the Ottoman court, there were also large metropolitan centers where the Ottoman influence expressed itself with a diversity similar to metropolises of today: Sarajevo, Skopje, Thessaloniki, Dimashq, Baghdad, Beirut, Jerusalem, Makkah were other cities that had their own examples of Ottoman diversity, with their own small versions of Provincial Administration replicating the culture of the Ottoman court locally. Also, as the largest group of non-Muslim subjects (or zimmi) of the Islamic Ottoman state, the Orthodox millet was granted a number of special privileges in the fields of politics and commerce{citation needed}, in addition to having to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects.
Similar millets were established for the Ottoman Jewish community, who were under the authority of the Haham Başı or Ottoman Chief Rabbi;
State and Religion
Largely for practical reasons, the Ottoman Empire was, in a broad sense, tolerant towards its non-Muslim subjects; The state's relationship with the Greek Orthodox Church, for example, was largely peaceful, and the church's structure was kept intact and largely left alone but under close control and scrutiny until the Greek War of Independence of 1821–1831 and, later in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the rise of the Ottoman constitutional monarchy, which was driven to some extent by nationalistic currents, tried to be balanced with ottomanism. for example, following the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, Sultan Beyazid II welcomed them into Ottoman lands.
Law
Legally, the Ottoman Empire was organised around a system of local jurisprudence; The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, which was run by the kadıs, or Islamic judges;
Throughout the empire, there were two systems of law in effect: one was the Islamic Sharia law system, and the other was the Turkish Kanun system based upon the Turkic Yasa and Tore which was developed in the pre-Islamic era. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors.
Military
Further information: Sipahi, Akinci, Timariot, Janissary, Nizam-ı CedidThe Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. In the Ottoman army, light cavalry long formed the core and they were given fiefs called Tımars. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to employ muskets. The modernisation of the Ottoman empire in the 19th century started with the military. "The Ottoman and Safavid Empires: A New Imperial Synthesis" in A History of the Modern Middle East. History of the Ottoman Turks: From the beginning of their empire to the present time. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923. "Ideology and Conflict: The Wars of the Ottoman Empire, 1453–1606", Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 18, No. 4. The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power. The Government of the Ottoman Empire in the Time of Suleiman the Magnificent. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.
In English
450+ articles and abstracts about ottoman Empire HQ images/miniature about Ottoman (life, army, politic life) The Ottoman Empire http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/OTTOMAN/OTTOMAN1.HTM World Civilizations: The Ottomans]—a comprehensive site that covers much about the Ottoman state and government Capitals of Ottoman Empire—covers the different Ottoman capitals History of Turkish Empire- Gives detail timetable. The Ottoman Empire Map of Europe in year 1600 with a detailed view of the Empire. Ottoman Website Turkish Oral Narrative The Ottoman Empire in WWI - The most comprehensive websiteIn Turkish
Everything about the Ottoman Empire—a detailed site covering many different aspects of the Ottoman Empire Turkcebilgi.com Ottoman Empire Pages—a site covering various aspects of the Ottoman Empire Flags of the Ottoman Empire—contains information about Ottoman flags Everything About Ottoman Coins—a comprehensive site that covers much about Ottoman currency chronological Ottoman Empire history v • d • e Series under Ottoman Empire v • d • e Sultans of the Ottoman Empire| Rise (1299–1453) | Osman I - Orhan I - Murad I - Bayezid I - Mehmed I - Murad II - Mehmed II |
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| Growth (1453–1683) | Bayezid II - Selim I - Suleiman I - Selim II - Murad III - Mehmed III - Ahmed I - Mustafa I - Osman II - Murad IV |
| Stagnation (1683–1827) | Ibrahim I - Mehmed IV - Suleiman II - Ahmed II - Mustafa II - Ahmed III - Mahmud I - Osman III - Mustafa III - Abdul Hamid I - Selim III - Mustafa IV - Mahmud II |
| Decline (1828–1908) | ‘Abdu’l-Mijid I - ‘Abdu’l-‘Aziz - Murad V - ‘Abdu’l-Hamid II - Mehmed V |
| Dissolution (1908–1923) | Mehmed VI |
| History of Turkic civilization |
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Early Turkic-speaking dynasties
or dynasties with a possible Turkic mix |
| Göktürk Empire (552–743 A.D.) Avar Empire (567 to the 9th century A.D) |
| Medieval history |
| Khazar Empire (602–1016 A.D.) Onoguria (630-685 A.D) Volga Bulgaria (7th and 13th centuries A.D.) Danube Bulgarian Empire (681-1018 A.D.) Uyghur Empire (740–1335 A.D.) Kara-Khanid Khanate (932–1212 A.D.) Ghaznavid_Empire (962–1183 A.D.) Seljuq Empire (1040–1157 A.D.) The Golden Horde (1242-1502 A.D.) Chagatai State (1241-1334 A.D.) Kara Koyunlu (1407–1468) Ak Koyunlu (1378–1508) Ottoman Empire (1299–1922 A.D.) |
| Modern history |
| Republic of Turkey (1923–present) Republic of Uzbekistan (1991-present) Republic of Azerbaijan (1991-present) Republic of Turkmenistan (1991-present) Republic of Kazakhstan (1991-present) Kyrgyz Republic (1991-present) Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (1983-present) |
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