Intellectual inquiry in China dates back at least to the time of Confucius in the 6th-c BC, and until the consolidation of empire in the 2nd-c BC a number of different schools engaged in vigorous rivalry. Since argument was primarily directed at competing rulers rather than fellow-citizens, early Chinese thought has a strongly social, non-speculative emphasis, but modern researchers have come to respect the coherence of its culturally and linguistically unfamiliar modes of debate. Three early schools were particularly influential: Confucians stressed the importance of the cultural heritage - at best as humanists, at worst as pedants; Taoists stressed the tao way, underlying and sustaining the natural world, as a surer guide than human institutions; Legalists stressed the ruler's need to promulgate laws, setting out rewards and punishments to mould his kingdom into an effective power against his rivals. Legalism created the Chinese empire, but Confucianism sustained it, though the decline of empire from the 2nd-c AD onward allowed more mystical philosophies based on the surviving Taoist texts to flourish, paving the way for the acceptance of Buddhism. The rejection of Buddhism in favour of Neo-Confucianism from the 11th-c onward marks a major turning point. Buddhism was accused of denying the reality of the world of our experience, which for Neo-Confucians was composed of ch'i, the material element, ordered by li, abstract norms patterning this material. Comprehension of these norms was for some, following Chu Hsi (11301200), a matter of studying the cultural heritage; for others, following Wang Yang-ming (14721529), a matter of looking within the mind. The ramifications of Neo-Confucian debate provoked a shift from the 17th-c onwards towards the more philological study of the authoritative early texts. The wholesale rejection of traditional thought in the early 20th-c has now yielded to attempts at defining a modern Confucianism in parts of E Asia, even as Marxism remains the official philosophy of the homeland of Confucius himself.
Chinese philosophy is philosophy written in the Chinese tradition of thought. Chinese philosophy has a history of several thousand years; its origins are often traced back to the Yi Jing (the Book of Changes), an ancient compendium of divination, which introduced some of the most fundamental terms of Chinese philosophy.
Brief history
Early Beliefs
Early Shang Dynasty thought was based upon cyclicity. Thus, this notion, which remained relevant throughout Chinese history, reflects the order of nature. During the Shang, fate could be manipulated by great deities Heaven (Chinese: 神;
When the Shang were overthrown by the Zhou, a new political, religious and philosophical concept was introduced called the "Mandate of Heaven".
See also: I Ching, Oracle Bones, Chinese Mythology
Hundred Schools of Thought
In around 500 BC, after the Zhou state weakened and China moved in to the Spring and Autumn Period, the classic period of Chinese philosophy began (it is an interesting fact that this date nearly coincides with the emergence of the first Greek philosophers).
Imperial Era
The short founder Qin Dynasty, where Legalism was the official philosophy, quashed Mohist and Confucianist schools. These latter two became the determining forces of Chinese thought until the 20th century, with the introduction Buddhist philosophy (mostly during Tang Dynasty) negotiated largely through perceived similarities with Daoism.
Neo-Confucianism was a revived version of old Confucian principles that appeared around the Song Dynasty, with Buddhist, Taoist, and Legalist features.
The respective influences of Daoism and Confucianism are often described this way: "Chinese are Confucianist during the day, while they are Daoists at night". Moreover, many Chinese mandarins were government officials in the daily life and poets (or painters) in their spare time.
Modern Era
During the Industrial and Modern Ages, Chinese philosophy had also began to integrate concepts of Western philosophy, as steps toward modernization. There have been attempts to incorporate democracy, republicanism, and industrialism into Chinese philosophy, notably by Sun Yat-Sen (Sūn yì xiān, in one Mandarin form of the name) at the beginning of the 20th century.
When the Communist Party of China took over power, previous schools of thought, excepting notably Legalism, were denounced as backward, and later even purged during the Cultural Revolution. Their influence on Chinese thought, however, remains.
Since the radical movement of the Cultural Revolution, the Chinese government has become much more tolerant with the practice of traditional beliefs. (However, it should be noted that those organizations are heavily monitored by the state.) The influences of past are still deeply ingrained in the Chinese culture.
See also: Chinese nationalism, Maoism, Culture of the People's Republic of China
Main Schools of Thought
Confucianism
Confucianism is the collective teachings of the sage Confucius from BC 551 - 479. It is a complex system of moral, social, political, and religious thought which has had tremendous influence on the history of Chinese civilization down to the 21st century. It is arguable that Confucianism is most responsible for shaping the Chinese culture and state of China.
See also: Analects of Confucius
Taoism
Taoism is the English name for:
(a) a philosophical school based on the texts the Tao Te Ching (ascribed to Laozi and alternately spelled Dào Dé Jīng) and the Zhuangzi. (b) a family of organized Chinese religious movements such as the Zhengyi ("Orthodoxy") or Quanzhen ("complete reality") sects.The character Tao 道 (or Dao, depending on the Romanisation scheme one prefers) literally means "path" or "way", but in Chinese religion and philosophy has taken on more abstract meanings.
The Yin Yang symbol was created by the Taoist school, which symbolizes a primitive version of dialectical materialism. This notion of two opposite polars and perpetual change is prevalent in Chinese thoughts and culture throughout the Chinese History. For example, the Confucian idea of "Rid of the two ends, take the middle" is a Chinese equivalent of Hegel's idea of "thesis, antithesis, and synthesis", which is a way to compromising oppositions and arriving at some optimal middle ground.
Chinese alchemy, astrology, cuisine, several Chinese martial arts, Chinese traditional medicine, fengshui, and many styles of qigong breath training disciplines have some relationship with Taoism.
Legalism
Legalism is the totalitarian pragmatic political philosophy of Han Fei, with maxims like "when the epoch changed, the ways changed" as its essential principle, than a jurisprudence. In this context, "legalism" here can bear the meaning of "political philosophy that upholds the rule of law", and is thus distinguished from the word's Western sense.
A ruler should govern his subjects by the following trinity:
Fa (法 fǎ): law or principle.Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion, a practical philosophy, and arguably a psychology, focusing on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, who lived on the Indian subcontinent most likely from the mid-6th to the early 5th century BCE.
Although Buddhism originated in India, it has had the greatest impact on China.
Mohism
Mohism was founded by the philosopher Mozi, which promotes a philosophy of universal love, i.e.
See also: Logicians
Great philosophical figures
Confucius, seen as the Great Master but sometimes ridiculed by Taoists. Han Fei, one of the theoreticians of Legalism Lin-chi, a great Buddhist Ch'an thinker and teacher, essentially shaped what would become one of the largest schools of Buddhism (Rinzai school of Zen)Concepts within Chinese philosophy
Although the individual philosophical schools differ considerably, they nevertheless share a common vocabulary and set of concerns.
Among the terms commonly found in Chinese philosophy are:
Tao (the Way, or one's doctrine) De (virtue, power) Li (principle) Qi (vital energy or material force) The Taiji (Great Heavenly Axis) forms a unity, from which two antagonistic concepts, Yin and Yang originate.Among the great controversies of Chinese philosophies are:
The relation between matter and principle The method of discovering truth Human natureAmong the commonalties of Chinese philosophies are:
Epistemological optimism. Questions about the nature and existence of God which have profoundly influenced Western philosophy have not been important in Chinese philosophies.Comparison between Chinese and Western philosophy
The focuses of Western and Chinese philosophy are radically different, thus they have a considerable effect on mentalities of both societies. Western philosophy emphasizes ambition, individualism, rationality, power, and liberty, while Chinese philosophy emphasizes benevolence, harmony, wisdom, family, and honoring one's ancestors. Chinese philosophy primarily focuses more internally, while Western philosophy focus is more external.
In many ways, the Western and Chinese philosophies are the antithesis of each other. It is not to say Chinese philosophy was irrational, nor to say that Western philosophy is unwise.
Despite their many differences, it would be far from the truth that Western and Chinese philosophy completely thought differently. It is just the mainstream philosophical schools that make Western and Chinese philosophy different.
User Comments Add a comment…