A small fast warship designed in the late 19th-c to destroy enemy torpedo boats. It has undergone much development and adopted many other roles: submarine hunting, evacuation, invasion, assault support, and convoy escort, as well as providing a battleship screen in both world wars. Modern destroyers are usually guided-missile carriers and pack immense fire power compared to their ancestors. They are more akin to World War 2 cruisers in size.
In naval terminology, a destroyer is a fast and maneuverable yet long-endurance warship intended to escort larger vessels in a fleet or battle group and defend them against smaller, short-range attackers (originally torpedo boats, later submarines and aircraft). Before World War II, destroyers were a type of light combatant which did not have the endurance for unattended oceanic operations, and thus operated typically with a number of destroyers and a single destroyer tender;
At the beginning of the 21st century, destroyers are the heaviest surface combatant vessels in general use, with only four nations (the United States, Russia, France and Peru) operating cruisers and none operating battleships. Modern destroyers are equivalent in tonnage but drastically superior in firepower to cruisers of the World War II era, capable of carrying nuclear missiles able to destroy cities in a very small volley.
Genesis of the destroyer
The destroyer originated in the United Kingdom and Japan in the last years of the 1880s, and became firmly established after the Chilean Civil War of 1891 and in the Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895).
While normally a small, short-range boat of this sort would be easily destroyed long before getting into range, they could be operated within a fleet with larger ships as long as the fleet was close to base. In this case the defending force had to choose which set of targets to attack: the larger ships which they were built to counter, or the smaller torpedo boats which were charging in to attack. The basic idea was to have a screen of ships that were as fast as the torpedo boats, but armed with guns instead of torpedoes. They would operate at a distance from the main fleet of capital ships to keep the torpedo boats from ever getting into torpedo firing range. The ship would indeed be capable of holding off an attack by torpedo boats (which typically have no guns of their own), but while operating away from the fleet they would be easy targets for any other capital ship.
Another problem was that the torpedo boats were short ranged and thus easy and cheap to produce. This required them to have the speed and range of the battleships, so destroyers were often much larger than the boats they were designed to counter.
First designs
The destroyer emerged gradually from experimental large torpedo boats of the 1880s and 1890s, mainly built in British boatyards.
An early idea was the torpedo ram Polyphemus built in 1881. At 18 knots, she was fast enough to close against torpedo boats, threatening them with her ram, and could engage enemy warships with either ram or her own torpedos.
A further development came in 1884 with Swift, a large torpedo boat with six 47 mm quick-firing guns and three torpedo tubes.
The Japanese Kotaka ("Falcon") of 1885, was "the forerunner of torpedo boat destroyers that appeared a decade later" (Kaigun, David C. She was armed with four 1-pounder (37 mm) quick-firing guns and six torpedo tubes, reached 19 knots (35 km/h), and at 203 tons, was the largest torpedo boat yet designed.
Almost immediately after the order of Kotaka was placed, Fernando Villaamil, second officer of the Ministry of the Navy of Spain where he was put in charge of developing the concept of a new ship designed to combat torpedo boats, placed an order for a large torpedo boat in November 1885, with the British builder James and George Thompson, of Clydebank, not far from the Yarrow shipyards. Her displacement was 380 tons, and she was armed with one 90 mm Hontoria cannon, four 57 mm Nordenfeldt cannon, two 37 mm Hotchkiss guns and 3 Schwartzkopff torpedo tubes.
Shortly afterwards the Royal Navy began experiments with the Rattlesnake class 'torpedo boat catcher', a class of 17 large torpedo boats - the first precursors of detroyers to be built as a class, rather than as single ships.
The first ships to bear the formal designation "Torpedo boat destroyer" were the Havock class of two ships of the Royal Navy, developed in 1892 under the newly appointed Third Sea Lord Rear Admiral "Jackie" Fisher, and launched in 1893. The Havock had a 240 tons displacement, a speed of 27 knots (50 km/h), and was armed with a single 12-pounder (76 mm) gun, three 6-pounders (57 mm), and three 46-cm torpedo tubes.
The French navy, an extensive user of torpedo boats, built its first destroyer in 1899, with the Durandal-class 'torpilleur d'escadre'.
Evolution of the destroyer in the early 1900s
Destroyer design evolved around the turn of the 20th century in several key ways. While the Viper herself broke in two and sank in rough seas, the RN nevertheless ordered more turbine destroyers and other navies followed suit: by 1910 the turbine had been widely adopted.
The British experimented with oil propulsion for the Tribal class of 1905 but switched temporarily back to coal for the later Beagle class in 1909.
In spite of all this variety, destroyers adopted a largely similar pattern.
Between 1890 and 1914 destroyers became markedly larger: initially 300 tons was a good size, but by the start of the First World War 1000 tons was not unusual.
Life on early destroyers
Early destroyers were extremely cramped places to live.
Early Destroyer tactics and engagements
The destroyer's initial purpose was to protect against torpedo boats, but navies soon appreciated the flexibility of the fast, multi-purpose vessel that resulted. Vice-Admiral Sir Baldwin Walker laid down the role of the destroyer for the Royal Navy:
Screening the advance of a fleet when hostile torpedo craft are about Searching a hostile coast along which a fleet might pass Watching an enemy's port for the purpose of harassing his torpedo craft and preventing their return Attacking an enemy fleetThe destroyer's first major use came the devastating Japanese attack on the Russian fleet in Port Arthur at the opening of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904.
World War I
While capital ship engagements were scarce in World War I, destroyer units were almost continually engaged in raiding and patrol actions.
Destroyers were involved in the skirmishes that prompted the Battle of Heligoland Bight, and filled a range of roles in the Battle of Gallipoli, acting as troops transports and fire support vessels, as well as their fleet-screening role. Over 80 British destroyers and 60 German torpedo-boats took part in the Battle of Jutland, which involved pitched small-boat actions between the main fleets, and several foolhardy attacks by unsupported destroyers on capital ships. Destroyers also had a shallow enough draft that torpedos would find it difficult to hit them.
The desire to attack submarines underwater led to rapid destroyer evolution during the war, which was quickly equipped with strengthened bows for ramming, depth charges and hydrophones for identifying submarine targets.
The submarine threat meant that many destroyers spent their time on anti-submarine patrol; US Navy destroyers were among the first American units to be despatched upon American entry to the war, and even a squadron of Japanese destroyers joined Allied patrols in the Mediterranean. Patrol duty was far from safe: of the 67 British destroyers lost in the War, collisions accounted for 18 and 12 were wrecked.
At the end of the war the state of the art was represented by the British W class.
Inter-war
The trend during World War I had been towards larger destroyers with heavier armaments. A number of opportunities to fire at capital ships had been missed during the War, because destroyers had expended all their torpedos in an initial salvo. 'W' classes of the late war had sought to address this by mounting six torpedo tubes in two triple mounts, instead of the four or two on earlier models.
The next major innovation came with the Japanese Fubiki class or 'special type', designed in 1923 and delivered in 1928. The second batch of the class gave the guns high-angle turrets for anti-aircraft warfare, and the 24-inch (60 cm) oxygen fuelled 'Long Lance' Type 93 torpedo. The later Ariaki class of 1931 further improved the torpedo armament by storing its reload torpedos close at hand in the superstructure, meaning reloading could be accomplished in 15 minutes.
Most other nations replied with similar larger ships. The US Porter class adopted twin five-inch guns, and the subsequent Mahan class and Gridley class (the latter of 1934) increased the number of torpedo tubes to 12 and 16 respectively.
In the Mediterranean, Italian navy's building of very fast light cruisers of the Condottieri class prompted the French to produce exceptional destroyer designs. The French had long been keen on large destroyers, with their Chacal class of 1922 displacing over 2000 tons and carrying 130 mm guns; The class carried five 5.5-inch guns and nine torpedo tubes, but their speed was truly exceptional - reaching 45 knots, which remains the record speed for a steamship and for any destroyer. The Italians' own destroyers were almost as rapid, most Italian designs of the 1930s being rated for 38 knots, and carrying four or six 120 mm guns as well as torpedos.
Germany started to build destroyers again during the 1930s as part of Hitler's rearmament programme. The Germans were also fond of large destroyers, but while the initial Type 1934 displaced over 3,000 tons their armament was no better than many smaller classes.
Once German and Japanese armament became clear, the British and American navies consciously focused on smaller, more numerous units. The British built a series of destroyers the A Class to I Class which were about 1400 tons standard displacement, had four 4.7 inch guns and eight torpedo tubes; the American Benson class of 1938 similar in size, but carried five 5-inch guns and ten torpedo tubes. The British realising the need for heavier gun armament built the Tribal class of 1936 (sometimes called "Afridi" after one of two lead ships) these ships displaced 1850 tons and was armed with eight 4.7-inch guns in four twin turrets and four torpedo tubes. This was followed by the J Class and L class destroyers with 6 guns in twin turrets and 8 torpedo tubes
Anti-submarine sensors included sonar (or ASDIC), although training in their use was indifferent.
Operations in the inter-war period
During the 1920s and 1930s destroyers were often deployed to areas of diplomatic tension or humanitarian disaster.
World War II
Main articles: British World War II destroyers, German World War II destroyersBy World War II the threat had evolved once again. By this time the destroyers had become large multi-purpose vessels, expensive targets in their own right rather than expendable vessels for the protection of others, also they were one of the most sunk kinds of ships even though they were mass produced.
Post-war
Some conventional destroyers were completed in the late 1940's and 1950's which built on wartime experience. Examples include the British Daring class, US Forrest Sherman-class, and the Soviet Kotlin-class destroyers.
Some World War II-vintage ships were modernised for anti-submarine warfare, and to extend their service lives, to avoid having to build (expensive) brand-new ships. Examples include the US FRAM I programme and the British Type 15 frigates converted from fleet destroyers. Guided missile destroyers (DDG in the US Navy) were developed to carry these weapons and protect the fleet from air, submarine and surface threats.
Modern destroyers
In the US Navy, destroyers operate in support of carrier battle groups, surface action groups, amphibious groups and replenishment groups. Destroyers (with a DD hull classification symbol) primarily perform anti-submarine warfare duty while guided missile destroyers (DDGs) are multi-mission (anti-submarine, anti-aircraft, and anti-surface warfare) surface combatants.
The Royal Navy currently operates 8 ships of the Type 42 class. British destroyers (of recent times) have an average displacement of around 5000 tonnes, and are armed with a mixture of guns and missiles including 114 mm (4.5 inch) Mk 8 guns, Sea Dart Missiles, 20 mm Close range guns, Vulcan Phalanx close in weapons system (CIWS), anti submarine torpedo tubes. These ships are due to be replaced by the new Type 45 or Daring Class destroyers which will displace roughly 7,200 tonnes and are predicted to be the most advanced surface warships in the world when they enter service at the end of the decade.
The Canadian Navy currently operates the Iroquois-class destroyers, a class of four helicopter-carrying, anti-aircraft, guided missile destroyers. These refits had the effect of re-purposing the ships for air-defence, and the ships are now referred to as area air-defence destroyers.
The Russian Navy and the People's Liberation Army Navy of the People's Republic of China operate the Sovremenny class, a class of large multi-purpose missile destroyers. While they also carry 533 mm torpedo tubes and RBU-6000 rocket launchers for use against submarines, their primary mission is to attack surface ships. Their anti-aircraft missiles have a surface attack mode, and both the 130 mm guns and the torpedoes are useful against ships at close range.
The Indian Navy operates the Delhi class destroyers. These destroyers also carry the RBU-6000 rockets in the anti-submarine role and are provided with five 533 mm torpedo launch tubes that can launch the SET-65E, Type 53-65 torpedoes. The Delhi class will be augmented by the new Kolkata class destroyers, the first of which was launched in March 2006.
Future destroyers
The last US Navy Spruance-class destroyer in service, USS Cushing, was decommissioned on September 21, 2005. DD(X), also called Zumwalt class, is much larger than traditional destroyers, being nearly three thousand tons heavier than a Ticonderoga-class cruiser. With the retirement of the Spruance class, the Navy began commissioning an advanced variant of the Arleigh Burke class with expanded ASW capabilities, the Arleigh Burke Flight IIA, beginning with USS Oscar Austin.
The current Royal Navy Type 42 destroyers are to be replaced by the new Type 45 Daring-class from 2007 onwards. Control and Air-Defence Capability Replacement) project is meant to replace Canada’s Iroquois class destroyers whose primary role shifted to area air-defence after TRUMP refits in the 1990s. There was some work on a replacement design, known to Navy-watchers as the Province class destroyers, but this was confined largely to studies of a much-improved multi-function three dimensional phased array radar system being developed in conjunction with the Dutch and German navies, known as Active Phased Array Radar (APAR).
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