The name traditionally given to Julius Caesar's brutal campaigns (5851 BC) against the Celtic tribes of Gaul (ancient France). They were also the occasion of his two unsuccessful invasions of Britain.
| Gallic Wars | |||||||||
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Map of the Gallic Wars |
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| Roman Republic | Several Gallic tribes | ||||||||
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Julius Caesar Titus Labienus Mark Antony Quintus Cicero |
Vercingetorix, Ambiorix, Commius, among other | ||||||||
| Gallic Wars |
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| Arar - Bibracte - Vosges - Axona – Sabis – Gergovia – Alesia |
The Gallic Wars were a series of military campaigns by several invading Roman legions under the command of Julius Caesar into Gaul, and the subsequent uprisings of the Gallic tribes. The Gallic Wars culminated in the decisive Battle of Alesia in 52 BC, in which a complete Roman victory resulted in the expansion of the Roman Republic over the whole of Gaul.
Although Caesar portrayed this invasion as being a defensive pre-emptive action, most historians agree that the wars were fought primarily to boost Caesar's political career and to pay off his massive debts.
This military campaign is painstakingly described by Julius Caesar himself in his book Commentarii de Bello Gallico, which still is the most important historical source. This book is also a masterwork of political propaganda, as Caesar was keenly interested in manipulating his readers in Rome.
Political background
In 58 BC, Julius Caesar ended his consulship in Rome, and was heavily indebted. As Metellus Celer, governor of Transalpine Gaul, died unexpectly, this province was also awarded to Caesar. Caesar's governorships were extended to an outstanding five year period.
Under his direct command Caesar had initially four veteran legions: Legio VII, Legio VIII, Legio IX Hispana, and Legio X. Caesar knew personally most (perhaps even all) of these legions, as he had been governor of Hispania Ulterior in 61 BC and had campaigned successfully with them against the Lusitanians. Caesar also had the legal authority to levy additional legions and auxiliary units as he saw fit.
His ambition was clearly to conquer and to plunder some territories but it is likely that Gaul was not his initial target.
The Gallic/Celtic tribes on the other hand were quite civilized, wealthy, and totally divided.
The Romans respected and feared the Gallic and the Germanic tribes.
Campaign against the Helvetii - beginning of the war
By 61 BC, the Helvetii began to plan and to organize a mass migration, instigated by Orgetorix. Caesar accused all three men of having royal ambitions. As they departed, which Caesar dated to the 28th of March, they burned all their towns and their villages, and were joined by neighbouring tribes: the Rauraci, the Tulingi, the Latovici, and the Boii.
Meanwhile, Caesar was in Rome, and only a single legion was in the endangered province. Caesar, gaining valuable time, stalled the negotiations as his troops fortified their positions behind the river through a sixteen feet high rampart and a parallel running trench.
As the embassy returned, Caesar officially refused their request and warned them that any forceful attempt to cross the river would be opposed. Leaving his single legion under the command of his second-in-command Titus Labienus, Caesar quickly hurried to Cisalpine Gaul.
Meanwhile, the Helvetii had already crossed the territories of the Sequani, and were busy pillaging the lands of the Aedui, Ambarri, and Allobroges. These tribes were unable to oppose them, and as Roman allies asked for Caesar's help. Caesar obliged them and surprised the Helvetii as they were crossing the river Arar (modern Saône River). Three legions, under Caesar's command, surprised and defeated the Tigurine in the Battle of the Arar, inflicting great losses.
After the battle, the Romans built a bridge over the Saône to pursue the remaining Helvetii. Caesar chose a nearby hill to offer battle and the Roman legions stood to face their enemies.
In the ensuing Battle of Bibracte the legions smashed their opponents, and the defeated Helevtii offered their surrender which Caesar accepted. Upon Caesar's orders, other Gallic tribes captured and returned these fugitives, who were executed.
The war against the Germanic Suebi
Following this campaign, several Gallic aristocrats of almost every tribe arrived and congratulated Caesar for his victory. They called a Pan-Gallic meeting to discuss certains matters and invited Caesar to it. Caesar intervened in the conflict and soundly defeated Ariovistus at the Battle of Vosges, driving the remaining Germanic forces back across the Rhine.
In 57 BC he once again intervened in an intra-Gallic conflict, marching against the Belgae, who inhabited the area roughly bounded by modern-day Belgium and had recently attacked a tribe allied with Rome. His army suffered a surprise attack while it was making camp near the river Sambre and came close to being defeated, but was saved by its greater discipline and Caesar's own personal intervention in the fighting.
Punitive expeditions
The following year, 56 BC, Caesar turned his attention to the tribes of the Atlantic seaboard, notably the Veneti tribe in Armorica (modern Brittany), who had assembled a confederacy of anti-Roman tribes. Again, Caesar successfully defeated the Gauls, destroying their tribes.
Caesar took his forces across the Rhine in 55 BC in a punitive expedition against the Germans, though the Suebi, against whom the expedition was mounted, were never engaged in battle. Caesar did manage to secure a promise of hostages, though only two of them were actually sent. The expeditions had little lasting effect, but were great propaganda victories for Caesar, keeping him in the public eye at home.
The campaigns of 55 BC and early 56 BC have caused controversy for many centuries. They were controversial even at the time among Caesar's contemporaries, and especially among his political opponents, who decried them as a costly exercise in personal aggrandizement. In modern times, commentators have been sharply divided between critics of Caesar's nakedly imperialist agenda and defenders of the benefits that the expansion of Roman power subsequently wrought in Gaul.
Consolidation and rebellions
Discontent among the subjugated Gauls prompted a major uprising in the winter of 54–53 BC, when the Eburones of north-eastern Gaul rose in rebellion under their leader Ambiorix. Fifteen Roman cohorts were wiped out at Atuatuca Tungrorum (modern Tongeren in Belgium) and a garrison commanded by Quintus Tullius Cicero narrowly survived after being relieved by Caesar in the nick of time.
The uprising was, however, merely the prelude to a much bigger insurrection led by Vercingetorix, chief of the Arverni tribe of central Gaul, who successfully united the Gauls against the Romans. Caesar hurriedly returned from Italy to take charge of the campaign, pursuing the Gauls and capturing the town of Avaricum but suffering a costly defeat at Gergovia.
Notes and references
^ That the Balkans were Caesar's original target is argued by several scholars. Also Adrian Goldsworthy in his book In the Name of Rome Chapter 8 "Caesar in Gaul" at the very end of subchapter "Early life and career up to 58 BC" shares that view. It is certainly suggested by the provinces Caesar initially wanted for himself: Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum and supported by the initial placement of the legions.The Roman success in the Gallic Wars was due to a combination of clever politics, effective campaigning and greater military capability than their Gallic opponents. Caesar pursued a policy of "divide and conquer" to pick off his enemies, siding with individual tribes in disputes with their local rivals.
Many of Caesar's troops were themselves Gallic, so the conflict was not simply a war between Romans and Gauls. Caesar made very effective use of these forces, exploiting individual units' pride to spur them to greater efforts.
Caesar's Gallic opponents were considerably less capable militarily than the Romans.
The Gallic Wars in literature and culture
The primary historical source for the Gallic Wars is Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico in Latin, which is one of the best surviving examples of unadorned Latin prose.
The Gallic Wars have become a popular setting in modern historical fiction, especially that of France and Italy. Claude Cueni wrote a semi-historical novel "The Caesar's Druid" about a fictional Celtic druid, servant of Caesar and recorder of Caesar's campaigns.
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